{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T18:10:44Z","timestamp":1780078244944,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. Among the various factors associated with the risk of AD, growing attention in recent years has focused on environmental influences, particularly air pollution. The association between air pollutants and AD remains inconclusive due to heterogeneity in available studies. Given these gaps, we performed a systematic review on the topic. Methods: We systematically searched Pubmed, Embase and Scopus. Retrieved records underwent screening by title and abstract and then in full text. We included studies quantitatively exploring the association between exposure to air pollutants and risk of AD. We performed a meta-analysis to identify a pooled estimate of the impact of each pollutant on the probability of developing AD. Results: We retrieved 1081 records and included 27 studies. We found a significant association between PM2.5 levels and AD risk (HR 1.74, 95%CI 1.36\u20132.23). Our data did not support a relevant role for the other pollutants we analyzed (for PM10 HR = 1.35, 95%CI: 0.86\u20132.11; for NO2 HR = 1.34, 95%CI 0.96\u20131.86; and for O3 HR = 1.03, 95%CI 0.68\u20131.57). Conclusions: PM2.5 emerged as the pollutant most strongly and consistently associated with an increased risk of AD. This robust and statistically significant association underscores the potential neurotoxic effects of fine particulate matter. For other pollutants, a clear role was not found. These results should be interpreted with caution, due to high heterogeneity in the definition of AD in the included studies (in most cases, a clinical definition was used). More research will be needed in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15114163","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T09:57:43Z","timestamp":1779962263000},"page":"4163","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Air Pollution and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0635-4756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludovico","family":"Baiamonte","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenico","family":"Tarantino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4226-0714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela","family":"Lodico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 129, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanna","family":"Bellante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudia","family":"Migliazzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 129, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrizio","family":"Allegra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 129, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7974-3963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Maniscalco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 129, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3410-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tommaso","family":"Piccoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2817-3758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Vanacore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Italian National Institute of Health, 00100 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2466-937X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenica","family":"Matranga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 129, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3756-4323","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Salemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic, Interventional and Stroke Radiology, UOC Neurology, AOUP \u2018P. Giaccone\u2019, 90100 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, 90100 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"220","article-title":"Association between Air Pollutants and Dementia Risk in the Elderly","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement. Diagn. Assess. Dis. Monit."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwac188","article-title":"Associations of Air Pollution and Genetic Risk with Incident Dementia: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"192","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2865","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12901","article-title":"The Worldwide Costs of Dementia in 2019","volume":"19","author":"Wimo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breijyeh, Z., and Karaman, R. (2020). Comprehensive Review on Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Causes and Treatment. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25245789"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.34.7.939","article-title":"Clinical Diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the Auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"34","author":"McKhann","year":"1984","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5143","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13859","article-title":"Revised Criteria for Diagnosis and Staging of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Alzheimer\u2019s Association Workgroup","volume":"20","author":"Jack","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2024.3770","article-title":"Alzheimer Disease Is a Clinical-Biological Construct: An IWG Recommendation","volume":"81","author":"Dubois","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000464","article-title":"Effects of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) on Cognitive Impairment in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer Disease: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2212948","article-title":"Lecanemab in Early Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"388","author":"Swanson","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2022.05.017","article-title":"Association of Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution with Cognitive Decline and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease\u2013Related Amyloidosis","volume":"93","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwae133","article-title":"Comparing Traditional and Causal Inference Methodologies for Evaluating Impacts of Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure on Hospitalization with Alzheimer Disease and Related Dementias","volume":"194","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101266","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(25)00118-4","article-title":"Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and Incident Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Bredell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135","article-title":"Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement","volume":"151","author":"Moher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1230","DOI":"10.1002\/cl2.1230","article-title":"PRISMA2020: An R Package and Shiny App for Producing PRISMA 2020-compliant Flow Diagrams, with Interactivity for Optimised Digital Transparency and Open Synthesis","volume":"18","author":"Haddaway","year":"2022","journal-title":"Campbell Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.5195\/jmla.2020.834","article-title":"Improving the Translation of Search Strategies Using the Polyglot Search Translator: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"108","author":"Clark","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Libr. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2020.01.008","article-title":"A Full Systematic Review Was Completed in 2 Weeks Using Automation Tools: A Case Study","volume":"121","author":"Clark","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-024-02619-9","article-title":"Automation of Duplicate Record Detection for Systematic Reviews: Deduplicator","volume":"13","author":"Forbes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-016-0384-4","article-title":"Rayyan\u2014A Web and Mobile App for Systematic Reviews","volume":"5","author":"Ouzzani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200483","article-title":"Air Pollution and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"77","author":"Fu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4493","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c08188","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to PM2.5 Constituents, Genetic Susceptibility, and Incident Dementia: A Prospective Cohort Study among 0.2 Million Older Adults","volume":"59","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5443","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c10574","article-title":"Associations between Ultrafine Particles and Incident Dementia in Older Adults","volume":"59","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.123758","article-title":"Air Pollution, APOE Genotype and Risk of Dementia among Individuals with Cardiovascular Diseases: A Population-Based Longitudinal Study","volume":"347","author":"Tian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108870","article-title":"Associations of Ambient Air Pollution Exposure and Lifestyle Factors with Incident Dementia in the Elderly: A Prospective Study in the UK Biobank","volume":"190","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, S., Huang, X., Zhang, L., Ling, Y., Tan, S., Peng, M., Xu, A., and Lyu, J. (2023). Associations of Air Pollution with All-Cause Dementia, Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, and Vascular Dementia: A Prospective Cohort Study Based on 437,932 Participants from the UK Biobank. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1216686"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.163173","article-title":"Residential Greenness, Air Pollution and Incident Neurodegenerative Disease: A Cohort Study in China","volume":"878","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.112895","article-title":"Exposure to Air Pollution and Risk of Incident Dementia in the UK Biobank","volume":"209","author":"Parra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2211282119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2211282119","article-title":"Incident Dementia and Long-Term Exposure to Constituents of Fine Particle Air Pollution: A National Cohort Study in the United States","volume":"120","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-022-00937-w","article-title":"Associations between PM2.5 Exposure and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Prevalence Among Elderly in Eastern China","volume":"21","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106376","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Risk of Dementia: Results of the Prospective Three-City Study","volume":"148","author":"Mortamais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.116303","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Dementia Incidence: A Cohort Study in Hong Kong","volume":"271","author":"Ran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rhew, S.H., Kravchenko, J., and Lyerly, H.K. (2021). Exposure to Low-Dose Ambient Fine Particulate Matter PM2.5 and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, Non-Alzheimer\u2019s Dementia, and Parkinson\u2019s Disease in North Carolina. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253253"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6754","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27049-2","article-title":"A National Cohort Study (2000\u20132018) of Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and Incident Dementia in Older Adults in the United States","volume":"12","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e557","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30227-8","article-title":"Long-Term Effects of PM2\u00b75 on Neurological Disorders in the American Medicare Population: A Longitudinal Cohort Study","volume":"4","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109870","article-title":"Exposure to Ambient Air Pollutants and the Onset of Dementia in Qu\u00e9bec, Canada","volume":"190","author":"Smargiassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-020-0565-4","article-title":"Road Proximity, Air Pollution, Noise, Green Space and Neurologic Disease Incidence: A Population-Based Cohort Study","volume":"19","author":"Yuchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-019-0511-5","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution and Hospitalization for Dementia in the Rome Longitudinal Study","volume":"18","author":"Cerza","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e022404","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-022404","article-title":"Are Noise and Air Pollution Related to the Incidence of Dementia? A Cohort Study in London, England","volume":"8","author":"Carey","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oudin, A., Segersson, D., Adolfsson, R., and Forsberg, B. (2018). Association between Air Pollution from Residential Wood Burning and Dementia Incidence in a Longitudinal Study in Northern Sweden. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0198283"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.03.089","article-title":"Association between Environmental Factors and Emergency Hospital Admissions Due to Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in Madrid","volume":"592","author":"Culqui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1408973","article-title":"Long-Term PM2.5 Exposure and Neurological HospitalAdmissions in the Northeastern United States","volume":"124","author":"Kioumourtzoglou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1408322","article-title":"Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Dementia Incidence in Northern Sweden: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"124","author":"Oudin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-140855","article-title":"Ozone, Particulate Matter, and Newly Diagnosed Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Population-Based Cohort Study in Taiwan","volume":"44","author":"Jung","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, C., Wu, D., Yang, J., Lu, X., Chen, X.Y., Ma, J., Lin, C., Lau, A.K.H., Jin, Y., and Li, R. (2025). Ambient Air Pollution and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Other Dementias: A Global Study between 1990 and 2019. BMC Public Health, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-21600-2"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.109219","article-title":"Longitudinal Associations between Air Pollution and Incident Dementia as Mediated by MRI-Measured Brain Volumes in the UK Biobank","volume":"195","author":"Thompson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"047001","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP13503","article-title":"Association between Fine Particulate Matter Exposure and Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease among a Cognitively Healthy Population-Based Cohort","volume":"132","author":"Casey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2025.109539","article-title":"The Role of the Components of PM2.5 in the Incidence of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Related Disorders","volume":"200","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2026.119750","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Residential Greenspace, Bluespace, Traffic, and Air Pollutants with All-Cause and Cause-Specific Dementia: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"310","author":"Ji","year":"2026","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108418","article-title":"Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Dementia Incidence in the Adult Changes in Thought Study","volume":"183","author":"Blanco","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge, R., Wang, Y., Zhang, Z., Sun, H., and Chang, J. (2024). Association of Long-Term Exposure to Various Ambient Air Pollutants, Lifestyle, and Genetic Predisposition with Incident Cognitive Impairment and Dementia. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17702-y"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"2023-05","article-title":"Prominent Role of PM10 but Not of Circulating Inflammation in the Link between Air Pollution and the Risk of Neurodegenerative Disorders","volume":"18","author":"Gialluisi","year":"2023","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12654","article-title":"Air Pollution and Dementia in Older Adults in the Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory Study","volume":"19","author":"Semmens","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-220804","article-title":"Air Pollution and the Risk of Dementia: The Rotterdam Study","volume":"91","author":"Ginos","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-220469","article-title":"PM2.5 and Dementia in a Low Exposure Setting: The Influence of Odor Identification Ability and APOE","volume":"92","author":"Andersson","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petkus, A.J., Salminen, L.E., Wang, X., Driscoll, I., Millstein, J., Beavers, D.P., Espeland, M.A., Braskie, M.N., Thompson, P.M., and Casanova, R. (2023). Alzheimer\u2019s Related Neurodegeneration Mediates Air Pollution Effects on Medial Temporal Lobe Atrophy. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.11.29.23299144"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2188","DOI":"10.1093\/restud\/rdac078","article-title":"Hazed and Confused: The Effect of Air Pollution on Dementia","volume":"90","author":"Bishop","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51779","article-title":"Air Pollution Is Associated with Faster Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-022-00863-x","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Residential Greenness and Neurodegenerative Disease Mortality among Older Adults: A 13-Year Follow-up Cohort Study","volume":"21","author":"Gadeyne","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2107833119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2107833119","article-title":"Association of Improved Air Quality with Lower Dementia Risk in Older Women","volume":"119","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-201538","article-title":"Local Contrasts in Concentration of Ambient Particulate Air Pollution (PM2.5) and Incidence of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Dementia: Results from the Betula Cohort in Northern Sweden","volume":"81","author":"Adolfsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106864","article-title":"Associations between Air Pollution and Biomarkers of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in Cognitively Unimpaired Individuals","volume":"157","author":"Alemany","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2185","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.17188","article-title":"Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure and Incident Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia","volume":"69","author":"Sullivan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1190","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000011149","article-title":"PM2.5 Associated with Gray Matter Atrophy Reflecting Increased Alzheimer Risk in Older Women","volume":"96","author":"Younan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105546","article-title":"Impact of Urban Environmental Exposures on Cognitive Performance and Brain Structure of Healthy Individuals at Risk for Alzheimer\u2019s Dementia","volume":"138","author":"Gascon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2019.4914","article-title":"Association Between Cardiovascular Disease and Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution with the Risk of Dementia","volume":"77","author":"Grande","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"for the KBASE Research Group, Lee, J.H., Byun, M.S., Yi, D., Ko, K., Jeon, S.Y., Sohn, B.K., Lee, J.-Y., Lee, Y., and Joung, H. (2020). Long-Term Exposure to PM10 and in Vivo Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Pathologies. J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis., 78, 745\u2013756.","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200694"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200320","article-title":"Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Incident Dementia: Direct and Indirect Pathways Through Metabolic Dysfunction","volume":"76","author":"Paul","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. JAD"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awz348","article-title":"Particulate Matter and Episodic Memory Decline Mediated by Early Neuroanatomic Biomarkers of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"143","author":"Younan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, R.-L., Ho, Y.-C., Luo, C.-W., Lee, S.-S., and Kuan, Y.-H. (2019). Influence of PM2.5 Exposure Level on the Association between Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Allergic Rhinitis: A National Population-Based Cohort Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16183357"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2017.08.020","article-title":"Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and the Incidence of Dementia: A Population-Based Cohort Study","volume":"108","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e071620","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2022-071620","article-title":"Ambient Air Pollution and Clinical Dementia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"381","author":"Wilker","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-024-01104-7","article-title":"Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer Disease","volume":"25","author":"Heneka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, C., Fritts, A., Broadway, J., Brawman-Mintzer, O., and Mintzer, J. (2025). Neuroinflammation: A Driving Force in the Onset and Progression of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14020331"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01486-5","article-title":"Role of Neuroinflammation in Neurodegeneration Development","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1007\/s40120-025-00832-9","article-title":"SGLT-2 Inhibitors in the Prevention and Progression of Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Narrative Review","volume":"14","author":"Kostrzewska","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2023.102084","article-title":"The Link between Metabolic Syndrome and Alzheimer Disease: A Mutual Relationship and Long Rigorous Investigation","volume":"91","author":"Jabir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2026.103050","article-title":"Microglial Metabolic Reprogramming in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Pathways, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"116","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antonioni, A., Govoni, V., Brancaleoni, L., Don\u00e0, A., Granieri, E., Bergamini, M., Gerdol, R., and Pugliatti, M. (2023). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Air Pollutants in the Province of Ferrara, Northern Italy: An Ecological Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20085591"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2433602","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.33602","article-title":"Air Pollution and Parkinson Disease in a Population-Based Study","volume":"7","author":"Krzyzanowski","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roy, R., and D\u2019Angiulli, A. (2024). Air Pollution and Neurological Diseases, Current State Highlights. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1351721"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2023.3300","article-title":"Comparison of Particulate Air Pollution from Different Emission Sources and Incident Dementia in the US","volume":"183","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5752904","DOI":"10.1155\/jt\/5752904","article-title":"Impact of Particulate Matter 2.5 on Neurological Diseases: Insights into Pathophysiological and Molecular Mechanisms","volume":"2025","author":"Rubio","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2015.11.008","article-title":"Neurotoxicity of Traffic-Related Air Pollution","volume":"59","author":"Costa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1021\/envhealth.4c00129","article-title":"The Constituent-Dependent Translocation Mechanism for PM2.5 to Travel through the Olfactory Pathway","volume":"2","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3551","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13825","article-title":"Peripheral HMGB1 Is Linked to O3 Pathology of Disease-Associated Astrocytes and Amyloid","volume":"20","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. J. Alzheimer\u2019s Assoc."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marin-Casta\u00f1eda, L.A., Gonzalez-Garibay, G., Garcia-Quintana, I., Pacheco-Aispuro, G., and Rubio, C. (2024). Mechanisms of Ozone-Induced Neurotoxicity in the Development and Progression of Dementia: A Brief Review. Front. Aging Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2024.1494356"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lane, M., Oyster, E., Luo, Y., and Wang, H. (2025). The Effects of Air Pollution on Neurological Diseases: A Narrative Review on Causes and Mechanisms. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13030207"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2024). Reconsideration of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Targa, J., Colina, M., Banyuls, L., Gonzalez Ortiz, A., and Soares, J. (2025). ETC HE Report 2025\/1: Status Report of Air Quality in Europe for Year 2024, Using Validated and Up-to-Date Data, European Environment Agency."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/11\/4163\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T17:52:35Z","timestamp":1780077155000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/11\/4163"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm15114163"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm15114163","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]}}}