{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T22:12:44Z","timestamp":1792015964123,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015550","name":"Ministry of Health, Italy","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RRC-2025-23686388"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RRC-2025-23686388"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015550","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) is frequent in neurological disorders, but it is often approached as a secondary urological or gynecological problem rather than a functional rehabilitation target. Neurological disease can disturb cortical, pontine, spinal, sacral, autonomic, somatic, and sensory pathways that regulate bladder storage, voiding, bowel evacuation, sexual function, and pelvic pain modulation. Methods: This narrative review synthesized biomedical evidence identified through PubMed searches from database inception to 2 May 2026. Search concepts included neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction, urinary and bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, pelvic pain, pelvic floor rehabilitation, biofeedback, electrical stimulation, neuromodulation, telerehabilitation, robotics, and major neurological disorders. The review was oriented according to the Scale for the Assessment of Narrative Review Articles (SANRA) and was not designed as a systematic review or meta-analysis. Results: Evidence from multiple sclerosis, stroke, Parkinson\u2019s disease, Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementias, spinal cord injury, and fibromyalgia or nociplastic pain syndromes supports a phenotype-based framework in which pelvic floor muscle training, bladder and bowel training, biofeedback, neuromuscular electrical stimulation, posterior tibial nerve stimulation, sacral neuromodulation, telerehabilitation, robotics, and multidisciplinary care are considered complementary rather than interchangeable strategies. Conclusions: PFD in neurological disorders may be more appropriately conceptualized as a multidimensional neurorehabilitation target. Effective care depends on disease-informed phenotyping, individualized rehabilitation goals, attention to cognition and adherence, and standardized outcome measurement. Future studies should test phenotype-specific pathways that integrate bladder, bowel, sexual, pain, participation, safety, and caregiver outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15135140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T16:50:33Z","timestamp":1782924633000},"page":"5140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Neurogenic Pelvic Floor Dysfunctions Across Neurological Disorders: Mechanisms, Phenotypes, and Precision Rehabilitation Pathways\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1812-8454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Desir\u00e8e","family":"Latella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Scorza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3284-9741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirjam","family":"Bonanno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Calderone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelo","family":"Quartarone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9210-1332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Quattrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche Applicate e Biotecnologiche, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi Dell\u2019Aquila, 67100 L\u2019Aquila, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8566-3166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rocco Salvatore","family":"Calabr\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(21)00252-0","article-title":"Global, Regional, and National Burden of Stroke and Its Risk Factors, 1990\u20132019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"20","author":"Feigin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(24)00038-3","article-title":"Global, Regional, and National Burden of Disorders Affecting the Nervous System, 1990\u20132021: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"23","author":"Steinmetz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ogc.2009.08.002","article-title":"Epidemiology of Pelvic Floor Dysfunction","volume":"36","author":"Sung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.300.11.1311","article-title":"Prevalence of Symptomatic Pelvic Floor Disorders in US Women","volume":"300","author":"Nygaard","year":"2008","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000000286","article-title":"Lifetime Risk of Stress Incontinence or Pelvic Organ Prolapse Surgery","volume":"123","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.23397","article-title":"An International Continence Society (ICS) Report on the Terminology for Adult Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction (ANLUTD)","volume":"37","author":"Gajewski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.10052","article-title":"The Standardisation of Terminology of Lower Urinary Tract Function: Report from the Standardisation Sub-Committee of the International Continence Society","volume":"21","author":"Abrams","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00070-8","article-title":"Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction in the Neurological Patient: Clinical Assessment and Management","volume":"14","author":"Panicker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2015.07.071","article-title":"Summary of European Association of Urology (EAU) Guidelines on Neuro-Urology","volume":"69","author":"Groen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1097\/JU.0000000000002235","article-title":"The AUA\/SUFU Guideline on Adult Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction: Diagnosis and Evaluation","volume":"206","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1097\/JU.0000000000002239","article-title":"The AUA\/SUFU Guideline on Adult Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction: Treatment and Follow-up","volume":"206","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1097\/JU.0000000000003985","article-title":"The AUA\/SUFU Guideline on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Idiopathic Overactive Bladder","volume":"212","author":"Cameron","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1177\/15459683261416432","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Dysfunction and Rehabilitation in Neurological Disorders: Bridging Pathophysiology with Multidisciplinary Approaches\u2014A Focused Mini-Review","volume":"40","author":"Caglar","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s41073-019-0064-8","article-title":"SANRA\u2014A Scale for the Quality Assessment of Narrative Review Articles","volume":"4","author":"Baethge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Integr. Peer Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1136\/rapm-2024-105661","article-title":"Narrative Reviews in Anesthesia and Pain Medicine: Guidelines for Producers, Reviewers and Consumers","volume":"50","author":"Kelley","year":"2025","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x","article-title":"A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies","volume":"26","author":"Grant","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Inf. Libr. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.10066","article-title":"van Good Urodynamic Practices: Uroflowmetry, Filling Cystometry, and Pressure-Flow Studies","volume":"21","author":"Abrams","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.22546","article-title":"International Continence Society Guidelines on Urodynamic Equipment Performance","volume":"33","author":"Gammie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.23501","article-title":"Value of Urodynamic Findings in Predicting Upper Urinary Tract Damage in Neuro-Urological Patients: A Systematic Review","volume":"37","author":"Musco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1159\/000365056","article-title":"A New Comprehensive Classification System for Both Lower and Upper Urinary Tract Dysfunction in Patients with Neurogenic Bladder","volume":"94","author":"Liao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urol. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-008-0764-7","article-title":"Neurogenic Bladder: Etiology and Assessment","volume":"23","author":"Bauer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2401","article-title":"The Neural Control of Micturition","volume":"9","author":"Fowler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2015.tb00596.x","article-title":"Neural Control of the Lower Urinary Tract","volume":"5","author":"Griffiths","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2015.266","article-title":"Neural Control of Micturition in Humans: A Working Model","volume":"12","author":"Griffiths","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"S25","article-title":"Integrative Control of the Lower Urinary Tract: Preclinical Perspective","volume":"147","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-410X.83.s2.2.x","article-title":"The Central Control of Micturition and Continence: Implications for Urology","volume":"83","author":"Blok","year":"1999","journal-title":"BJU Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2005.06.007","article-title":"Striatal Dopamine Level Increases in the Urinary Storage Phase in Cats: An in Vivo Microdialysis Study","volume":"135","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20026","article-title":"Effects of High Frequency Deep Brain Stimulation on Urine Storage and Voiding Function in Conscious Minipigs","volume":"23","author":"Dalmose","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.1018","article-title":"Protocol for Clinical Neurophysiologic Examination of the Pelvic Floor","volume":"20","author":"Podnar","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20505","article-title":"Diagnostic Criteria for Pudendal Neuralgia by Pudendal Nerve Entrapment (Nantes Criteria)","volume":"27","author":"Labat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1179\/1079026812Z.00000000053","article-title":"International Standards to Document Remaining Autonomic Function after Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"35","author":"Krassioukov","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Spinal Cord Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walter, M., Kn\u00fcpfer, S.C., Cragg, J.J., Leitner, L., Schneider, M.P., Mehnert, U., Krassioukov, A.V., Schubert, M., Curt, A., and Kessler, T.M. (2018). Prediction of Autonomic Dysreflexia during Urodynamics: A Prospective Cohort Study. BMC Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-018-1040-8"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2011.11.107","article-title":"Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction\u2014Do We Need Same Session Repeat Urodynamic Investigations?","volume":"187","author":"Bellucci","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1080\/21681805.2021.1954994","article-title":"The Stockholm Spinal Cord Uro Study: 3. Urodynamic Characteristics in a Regional Prevalence Group of Persons with Spinal Cord Injury and Indications for Improved Follow-Up","volume":"55","author":"Farrelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.25369","article-title":"Bladder Management Is the Top Health Concern among Adults with a Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"43","author":"Loftus","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.7224\/1537-2073.2020-014","article-title":"Prevalence of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in People with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"22","author":"Coote","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. MS Care"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458506075651","article-title":"The Neurogenic Bladder in Multiple Sclerosis: Review of the Literature and Proposal of Management Guidelines","volume":"13","author":"Ruffion","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20503121231178047","DOI":"10.1177\/20503121231178047","article-title":"Multiple Sclerosis and Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms: A Survey of Prevalence, Characteristic and Urological Evaluations","volume":"11","author":"Sharifiaghdas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sage Open Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2024.01.008","article-title":"Interactions between Fatigue and Urinary Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"120","author":"Giannopapas","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaekel, A.K., Watzek, J., Nielsen, J., Butscher, A.-L., Bitter, J., von Danwitz, M., Z\u00f6hrer, P.I., Knappe, F., Kirschner-Hermanns, R., and Kn\u00fcpfer, S.C. (2025). The Impact of Urodynamic Findings on Fatigue and Depression in People with Multiple Sclerosis. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13030601"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/17474930241308142","article-title":"World Stroke Organization: Global Stroke Fact Sheet 2025","volume":"20","author":"Feigin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Stroke"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024). GBD 2021 Stroke Risk Factor Collaborators. Global, Regional, and National Burden of Stroke and Its Risk Factors, 1990\u20132021: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet Neurol., 23, 973\u20131003."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20605","article-title":"Prevalence of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS) in Stroke Patients: A Cross-Sectional, Clinical Survey","volume":"27","author":"Tibaek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108942","article-title":"Post-Stroke Urinary Incontinence Is Associated with Behavior Control Deficits and Overactive Bladder","volume":"201","author":"Funayama","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"265","article-title":"An Evaluation of the Postvoid Residual Urine Volume in Acute Stroke Patients","volume":"16","author":"Yamashita","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res. Rep. Urol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.21013","article-title":"Stroke Patients Who Regain Urinary Continence in the First Week after Acute First-Ever Stroke Have Better Prognosis than Patients with Persistent Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction","volume":"30","author":"Rotar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-023-03647-5","article-title":"The Investigation of Cognition, Proprioception, Sensory and Physical Function in Stroke Patients with Urinary Incontinence","volume":"55","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25945","article-title":"The Prevalence of Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"29","author":"Pringsheim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.13290","article-title":"The PRIAMO Study: Urinary Dysfunction as a Marker of Disease Progression in Early Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"24","author":"Picillo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F.-F., Cui, Y.-S., Yan, R., Cao, S.-S., and Feng, T. (2022). Prevalence of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms, Urinary Incontinence and Retention in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Aging Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.977572"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16497","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.16497","article-title":"Urodynamic Study and Its Correlation with Cardiac Meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) in Body-first and Brain-first Subtypes of Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.22764","article-title":"A Guideline for the Management of Bladder Dysfunction in Parkinson\u2019s Disease and Other Gait Disorders","volume":"35","author":"Sakakibara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.24552","article-title":"Mirabegron for Treatment of Overactive Bladder Symptoms in Patients with Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Double-Blind, Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial (Parkinson\u2019s Disease Overactive Bladder Mirabegron, PaDoMi Study)","volume":"40","author":"Cho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2207","DOI":"10.1007\/s00192-023-05528-y","article-title":"The Efficacy and Safety of Medication for Treating Overactive Bladder in Patients with Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review of Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trials","volume":"34","author":"Cheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Urogynecol. J."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"S4","article-title":"Prevalence of Dementia and Major Subtypes in Europe: A Collaborative Study of Population-Based Cohorts. Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group","volume":"54","author":"Lobo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/appy.12007","article-title":"Urinary Incontinence in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Is Associated with Clinical Dementia Rating-Sum of Boxes and Barthel Activities of Daily Living","volume":"7","author":"Na","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asia-Pac. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grant, R.L., Drennan, V.M., Rait, G., Petersen, I., and Iliffe, S. (2013). First Diagnosis and Management of Incontinence in Older People with and without Dementia in Primary Care: A Cohort Study Using The Health Improvement Network Primary Care Database. PLoS Med., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001505"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1111\/iju.12420","article-title":"Urinary Incontinence in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Relationship between Symptom Status and Urodynamic Diagnoses","volume":"21","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1590\/s1677-5538.ibju.2015.0664","article-title":"Correlation between Overactive Bladder Symptom Score and Neuropsychological Parameters in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Patients with Lower Urinary Tract Symptom","volume":"43","author":"Jung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Braz. J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-2042.2008.02109.x","article-title":"Dementia and Lower Urinary Dysfunction: With a Reference to Anticholinergic Use in Elderly Population","volume":"15","author":"Sakakibara","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2023.08.054","article-title":"Prediction Model for Neurogenic Bladder Recovery One Year After Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"179","author":"Michalopoulos","year":"2023","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavese, C., Schneider, M.P., Schubert, M., Curt, A., Scivoletto, G., Finazzi-Agr\u00f2, E., Mehnert, U., Maier, D., Abel, R., and R\u00f6hrich, F. (2016). Prediction of Bladder Outcomes after Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury: A Longitudinal Cohort Study. PLoS Med., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002041"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2015.04.100","article-title":"The Severity of Bowel Dysfunction in Patients with Neurogenic Bladder","volume":"194","author":"Cameron","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-024-01002-8","article-title":"Bowel Burdens: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Examining the Relationships between Bowel Dysfunction and Quality of Life after Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"62","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Singh, H., Bauer, M., Chowanski, W., Sui, Y., Atkinson, D., Baurley, S., Fry, M., Evans, J., and Bianchi-Berthouze, N. (2014). The Brain\u2019s Response to Pleasant Touch: An EEG Investigation of Tactile Caressing. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 8."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.46292\/sci23-00082","article-title":"Lived Experiences of Sexuality and Sexual Functioning in Males with SCI: A Mixed-Methods Study","volume":"30","author":"Lai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Top. Spinal Cord Inj. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogc.2019.02.013","article-title":"Prevalence of Pelvic Floor Disorders in the Fibromyalgia Population: A Systematic Review","volume":"42","author":"Thornton","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2702","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.23723","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Dysfunction in Women with Fibromyalgia and Control Subjects: Prevalence and Impact on Overall Symptomatology and Psychosocial Function","volume":"37","author":"Slim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Dysfunctions in Women with Fibromyalgia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"282","author":"Sato","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1080\/03630242.2023.2249128","article-title":"Investigation of the Relationship between Sexual and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction in Female Patients with Fibromyalgia Syndrome","volume":"63","author":"Ayan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Women Health"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2024.10.050","article-title":"Fibromyalgia and Sexual Dysfunction in Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"303","author":"Deggerone","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1080\/0092623X.2025.2481226","article-title":"Assessment of Sexual Dysfunction in Female Fibromyalgia Patients According to Golombok-Rust Sexual Satisfaction Scale","volume":"51","author":"Yazar","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sex Marital. Ther."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2023.03.004","article-title":"Association Between Nociplastic Pain and Pain Severity and Impact in Women with Chronic Pelvic Pain","volume":"24","author":"Till","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pain."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2024.105661","article-title":"The Impact of Bladder Problems on Well-Being in Multiple Sclerosis\u2013A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"87","author":"Islamoska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.13010","article-title":"Urinary Incontinence in Multiple Sclerosis: Prevalence, Severity and Impact on Patients\u2019 Quality of Life","volume":"23","author":"Zecca","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.7224\/1537-2073.2012-052","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Disorders and Multiple Sclerosis: Are Patients Satisfied with Their Care?","volume":"16","author":"Mahajan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. MS Care"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"CD005654","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Muscle Training versus No Treatment, or Inactive Control Treatments, for Urinary Incontinence in Women","volume":"10","author":"Dumoulin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"CD009508","article-title":"Comparisons of Approaches to Pelvic Floor Muscle Training for Urinary Incontinence in Women","volume":"12","author":"Herderschee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-024-07380-x","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Muscle Training in Telerehabilitation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"309","author":"Hao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2022.103559","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Muscle Training in Multiple Sclerosis Patients with Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"59","author":"Kajbafvala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s11845-022-03083-x","article-title":"The Effect of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training on Urinary Incontinence in Patients with Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"192","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ir. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1080\/09593985.2022.2040668","article-title":"Effect of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training on Pelvic Floor Muscle Function and Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Stroke Patients: A Systematic Review","volume":"39","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiother. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20134","article-title":"Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Is Effective in Women with Urinary Incontinence after Stroke: A Randomised, Controlled and Blinded Study","volume":"24","author":"Tibaek","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1080\/07399332.2023.2190593","article-title":"Effects of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Applied with Telerehabilitation in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Having Lower Urinary Track Symptoms: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"45","author":"Bulbul","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Care Women Int."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5501","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-024-07742-y","article-title":"Comparison of Different Telerehabilitation Protocols for Urogenital Symptoms in Females with Multiple Sclerosis: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"45","author":"Deodato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1097\/NPT.0000000000000448","article-title":"Feasibility of Telerehabilitation-Based Pelvic Floor Muscle Training for Urinary Incontinence in People with Multiple Sclerosis: A Randomized, Controlled, Assessor-Blinded Study","volume":"47","author":"Yavas","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1007\/s00192-022-05429-6","article-title":"Concurrent Multi-Session Anodal Trans-Cranial Direct Current Stimulation Enhances Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Effectiveness for Female Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Suffering from Urinary Incontinence and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction: A Randomized Clinical Trial Study","volume":"34","author":"Ramezani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Urogynecol. J."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20209","article-title":"Comparison of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training, Electromyography Biofeedback, and Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation for Bladder Dysfunction in People with Multiple Sclerosis: A Randomized Pilot Study","volume":"25","author":"McClurg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20486","article-title":"Neuromuscular electrical stimulation and the treatment of lower urinary tract dysfunction in multiple sclerosis\u2014A double blind, placebo controlled, randomised clinical trial","volume":"27","author":"McClurg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0000000000000302","article-title":"Impact of a Pelvic Floor Training Program Among Women with Multiple Sclerosis: A Controlled Clinical Trial","volume":"95","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0000000000001189","article-title":"A Controlled Clinical Trial on the Effects of Exercise on Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Women with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"98","author":"Salgado","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.24052","article-title":"Behavioral Therapy for Urinary Symptoms in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"38","author":"Vaughan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1427","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000008931","article-title":"Bladder Training for Urinary Tract Symptoms in Parkinson Disease","volume":"94","author":"McDonald","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2016.01.010","article-title":"Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation for Treating Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction: A Systematic Review","volume":"69","author":"Gross","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20406223211063059","DOI":"10.1177\/20406223211063059","article-title":"Effects of Nonsurgical, Minimally or Noninvasive Therapies for Urinary Incontinence Due to Neurogenic Bladder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Ali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Chronic Dis."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000000338","article-title":"The Effectiveness and Safety of Oral Medications, onabotulinumtoxinA (Three Doses) and Transcutaneous Tibial Nerve Stimulation as Non or Minimally Invasive Treatment for the Management of Neurogenic Detrusor Overactivity in Adults: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis","volume":"109","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000000168","article-title":"Efficacy of Peripheral Electrical Nerve Stimulation on Improvements of Urodynamics and Voiding Diary in Patients with Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"109","author":"Ge","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2023.06.002","article-title":"Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation for Neurogenic Bladder After Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"27","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuromodul. Technol. At. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-024-05126-7","article-title":"Effects of External Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation in Women with Urgency Urinary Incontinence: A Randomized Sham-Controlled Study","volume":"42","author":"Kurt","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1007\/s00192-018-3630-6","article-title":"The Effect of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training and Intravaginal Electrical Stimulation on Urinary Incontinence in Women with Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury: An Investigator-Blinded Parallel Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"29","author":"Elmelund","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Urogynecol. J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2019.08.020","article-title":"Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Bladder Function: A Systematic Review","volume":"130","author":"Nardone","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s13760-019-01257-6","article-title":"The Effect of Cortical versus Sacral Repetitive Magnetic Stimulation on Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"120","author":"Nada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Belg."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18404","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-69345-z","article-title":"A Randomized Controlled Trial of Low-Frequency Repeated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Patients with Poststroke Neurogenic Bladder","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-024-07788-y","article-title":"Comparative Study on the Impact of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Bio-Feedback on Overactive Bladder in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"46","author":"Raheem","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/17582024.2025.2488712","article-title":"Effect of Neuromodulation on Neurogenic Bladder in Women with Multiple Sclerosis: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"15","author":"Birday","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurodegener. Dis. Manag."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.12669\/pjms.41.1.9655","article-title":"Clinical Efficacy of Bladder Function Training Combined with Pelvic Floor Biofeedback Electrical Stimulation on Neurogenic Bladder and Its Impact on Urodynamics","volume":"41","author":"Gu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pak. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-025-05597-2","article-title":"Evaluation of Transcutaneous Electrical Tibial Nerve Stimulation in Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction Secondary to a Parkinsonian Syndrome: Uroparktens\u2014A Multicenter Randomized Placebo-Controlled Study","volume":"43","author":"Peyronnet","year":"2025","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2022.01.019","article-title":"Neuromodulation for Storage Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Parkinson Disease: A Systematic Review","volume":"25","author":"Smith","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuromodul. Technol. At. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.30186","article-title":"Transcutaneous Tibial Nerve Stimulation for Overactive Bladder Symptoms in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: Results from a Phase II Randomized Control Trial (STRIPE)","volume":"40","author":"Smith","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2022.104252","article-title":"Posterior Tibial Nerve Stimulation as a Neuromodulation Therapy in Treatment of Neurogenic Overactive Bladder in Multiple Sclerosis: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Study","volume":"68","author":"Marzouk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103392","article-title":"Percutaneous Posterior Tibial Nerve Stimulation (PTNS) for Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTSs) Treatment in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"58","author":"Guitynavard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2020.105822","article-title":"Non-Invasive Neuromodulation for Bowel, Bladder and Sexual Restoration Following Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review","volume":"194","author":"Parittotokkaporn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"EVIDoa2200071","DOI":"10.1056\/EVIDoa2200071","article-title":"Sacral Neuromodulation for Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction","volume":"1","author":"Liechti","year":"2022","journal-title":"NEJM Evid."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1987","DOI":"10.1007\/s12325-021-01650-9","article-title":"Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis of Sacral Neuromodulation (SNM) in Patients with Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction (nLUTD): Over 20 Years\u2019 Experience and Future Directions","volume":"38","author":"Engelberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2020.06.063","article-title":"Sacral Nerve Stimulation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease Patients with Overactive Bladder Symptoms","volume":"144","author":"Greenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.2340\/16501977-2864","article-title":"Exoskeleton Gait Training to Improve Lower Urinary Tract Function in People with Motor-Complete Spinal Cord Injury: A Randomized Pilot Trial","volume":"53","author":"Williams","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"CD013571","article-title":"Bladder Training for Treating Overactive Bladder in Adults","volume":"2023","author":"Funada","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2022.01.045","article-title":"European Association of Urology Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Management of Female Non-Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms. Part 1: Diagnostics, Overactive Bladder, Stress Urinary Incontinence, and Mixed Urinary Incontinence","volume":"82","author":"Nambiar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2003.09.029","article-title":"Measuring Quality of Life in Multiple Sclerosis Patients with Urinary Disorders Using the Qualiveen Questionnaire1","volume":"85","author":"Bonniaud","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/13\/5140\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T17:42:00Z","timestamp":1782927720000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/13\/5140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm15135140"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm15135140","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]}}}