{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T15:16:26Z","timestamp":1783350986661,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in pregnancy is increasingly recognized as a high-risk metabolic condition, frequently accompanied by overweight, obesity, insulin resistance, and adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate body weight-related parameters in pregnancies complicated by T2DM compared with those in non-T2DM control groups. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science was conducted up to 19 August 2025. Original studies reporting body weight, body mass index (BMI), or gestational weight gain (GWG) in pregnant women with T2DM and different control groups were included. Data were synthesized using standardized mean differences (SMDs) with fixed or random-effects models. Maternal, metabolic, delivery, and neonatal outcomes were summarized descriptively. Results: Eighty-seven studies were included in the systematic review and seventy-two were included in the meta-analysis. Pregnant women with T2DM had significantly higher pre-pregnancy body weight and first-trimester body weight than normoglycemic and T1DM controls. Pre-pregnancy BMI was also significantly higher in T2DM pregnancies compared with normoglycemic, T1DM, and gestational diabetes controls. In contrast, GWG did not differ significantly between T2DM and normoglycemic or gestational diabetes pregnancies, while it was significantly lower in T2DM than in type 1 diabetes pregnancies. Adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes, including hypertensive disorders, preterm delivery, fetal growth abnormalities, macrosomia, congenital anomalies, and fetal\/neonatal loss, were frequently reported across the included studies. Conclusions: Pregnancies complicated by T2DM are characterized by an unfavorable preconception anthropometric profile. The contrasting patterns across diabetes types suggest different periods for weight-related care: preconception weight optimization appears particularly relevant in T2DM, whereas the higher gestational weight gain observed in T1DM relative to T2DM supports individualized monitoring of gestational weight trajectories during pregnancy. These strategies should be incorporated into comprehensive preconception and antenatal care alongside glycemic optimization and assessment of diabetes-related complications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15135260","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T13:43:14Z","timestamp":1783345394000},"page":"5260","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Body Weight-Related Parameters in Pregnancies Complicated by Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Maternal and Perinatal Outcome Mapping"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9176-9736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarina","family":"Ivanovic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Clinical Centre of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7542-5690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andja","family":"Cirkovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Statistics and Informatics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5292-0595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan","family":"Dugalic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Clinical Centre of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1822-0314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milos","family":"Milincic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Clinical Centre of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maja","family":"Macura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Clinical Centre of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7926-3916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miroslava","family":"Gojnic Dugalic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Clinical Centre of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee (2024). Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes\u20142024. Diabetes Care, 47, S20\u2013S42.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc24-S002"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjd.2017.10.038","article-title":"Diabetes and pregnancy","volume":"42","author":"Feig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Can. J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(16)30217-0","article-title":"Preconceptional and maternal obesity: Epidemiology and health consequences","volume":"4","author":"Poston","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0098-8","article-title":"Gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"5","author":"McIntyre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"536","article-title":"Diabetes in pregnancy: A new decade of challenges ahead","volume":"6","author":"Napoli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2010.11.039","article-title":"Is it time to revisit the Pedersen hypothesis in the face of the obesity epidemic?","volume":"204","author":"Catalano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.2174\/1389201015666140330192345","article-title":"Lipid metabolism during pregnancy and its implications for fetal growth","volume":"15","author":"Herrera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2018.12.008","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes mellitus in pregnancy: The impact of maternal weight and early glycaemic control on outcomes","volume":"233","author":"Bashir","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2207","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.3635","article-title":"Association of gestational weight gain with maternal and infant outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"317","author":"Goldstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.3820","article-title":"Association of gestational weight gain with adverse maternal and infant outcomes","volume":"321","author":"Voerman","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine, and National Research Council (2009). Weight Gain during Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-025-01713-y","article-title":"Predictors of composite maternal and fetal outcomes among pregnant women with early-onset type 2 diabetes","volume":"16","author":"Jotic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-1232","article-title":"Impact of restricted maternal weight gain on fetal growth and perinatal morbidity in obese women with type 2 diabetes","volume":"36","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-025-01782-w","article-title":"Optimal gestational weight gain in women with pregestational type 2 diabetes: A population-based cohort study in China","volume":"17","author":"Xue","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetol. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liberati, A., Altman, D.G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., G\u00f8tzsche, P.C., Ioannidis, J.P.A., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P.J., Kleijnen, J., and Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med., 6.","DOI":"10.2427\/5768"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.283.15.2008","article-title":"Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: A proposal for reporting","volume":"283","author":"Stroup","year":"2000","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Wells, G.A., Shea, B., O\u2019Connell, D., Peterson, J., Welch, V., Losos, M., and Tugwell, P. (2014). The Newcastle\u2013Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Assessing the Quality of Nonrandomised Studies in Meta-Analyses, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0197-2456(95)00134-4","article-title":"Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: Is blinding necessary?","volume":"17","author":"Jadad","year":"1996","journal-title":"Control. Clin. Trials"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higgins, J.P.T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M.J., and Welch, V.A. (2019). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119536604"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Altman, D.G. (1991). Practical Statistics for Medical Research, Chapman and Hall."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1879","article-title":"Growth hormone-binding protein in normal and pathologic gestation: Correlations with maternal diabetes and fetal growth","volume":"82","author":"Barnard","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/82.6.1162","article-title":"Unfavorable effect of type 1 and type 2 diabetes on maternal and fetal essential fatty acid status: A potential marker of fetal insulin resistance","volume":"82","author":"Min","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2016.105","article-title":"Maternal and neonatal outcomes in Korean women with type 2 diabetes","volume":"33","author":"Jang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjd.2020.01.001","article-title":"Outcomes of pregnancies affected by gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes in a rural First Nations obstetrical program in northwest Ontario","volume":"44","author":"Kattini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1479-828X.2009.01133.x","article-title":"Maternal and neonatal outcomes in the Torres Strait Islands with a sixfold increase in type 2 diabetes in pregnancy over six years","volume":"50","author":"Falhammar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.2337\/dc05-1677","article-title":"Hyperinsulinemia in cord blood in mothers with type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus in New Zealand","volume":"29","author":"Westgate","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003","DOI":"10.48130\/epi-0025-0001","article-title":"Reduced global DNA methylation in maternal peripheral blood is associated with preterm birth: An exploratory study in women with diabetes in pregnancy","volume":"18","author":"Dias","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epigenet. Insights"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/00016340701778732","article-title":"Factors influencing pregnancy outcome in women with type 2 versus type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"87","author":"Ramirez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-011-9475-0","article-title":"Glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes in women with type 2 diabetes from Poland: The impact of pregnancy planning and a comparison with type 1 diabetes subjects","volume":"40","author":"Cyganek","year":"2011","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Endo, S., Saisho, Y., Miyakoshi, K., Ochiai, D., Matsumoto, T., Kawano, Y., Mitsuishi, M., Irie, J., Tanaka, M., and Meguro, S. (2018). Association of maternal factors with perinatal complications in pregnancies complicated with diabetes: A single-center retrospective analysis. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7010005"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s13340-023-00667-5","article-title":"Clinical factors associated with birth weight of infants born to pregnant women with diabetes","volume":"15","author":"Suzuki","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetol. Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2011.03333.x","article-title":"Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by type 1 and type 2 diabetes: Influences of glycaemic control, obesity and social disadvantage","volume":"28","author":"Murphy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.4158\/EP14437.OR","article-title":"1,5-Anhydroglucitol and neonatal complications in pregnancies complicated by diabetes","volume":"21","author":"Wright","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocr. Pract."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinme.2025.100495","article-title":"Hyperglycaemia in pregnancy: Outcomes and diagnostic accuracy of combined modalities","volume":"25","author":"Manga","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1220763","article-title":"Hypertensive disorders in normal-weight, overweight and obese type 2 diabetic pregnant women","volume":"117","author":"Colatrella","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2011.587059","article-title":"Perinatal outcomes in type 2 diabetic patients compared with non-diabetic patients matched by body mass index","volume":"25","author":"Knight","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Matern.-Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-012-0008-7","article-title":"Effect of type 2 diabetes mellitus on the pharmacokinetics of metformin in obese pregnant women","volume":"51","author":"Lanchote","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s11845-011-0682-8","article-title":"Pregnancy in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes in Dublin","volume":"180","author":"Higgins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ir. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.12524","article-title":"Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-enriched fish oil supplementation in pregnant women with type 2 diabetes on membrane fatty acids and fetal body composition: Double-blinded randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"31","author":"Min","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ14-0529","article-title":"Women with rigorously managed overt diabetes during pregnancy do not experience adverse infant outcomes but do remain at serious risk of postpartum diabetes","volume":"62","author":"Park","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1080\/09513590.2017.1359824","article-title":"Anti-M\u00fcllerian hormone in type 2 and gestational diabetes during the second half of pregnancy: Relationship with sexual steroid levels and metabolic parameters","volume":"34","author":"Villarroel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gynecol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2018.07.004","article-title":"Pregnancy outcome after first-trimester exposure to metformin: A prospective cohort study","volume":"81","author":"Scherneck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-021-01710-0","article-title":"Pregnancy outcomes and maternal characteristics in women with pregestational and gestational diabetes: A retrospective study on 206,917 singleton live births","volume":"58","author":"Gualdani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.14840","article-title":"Risk factors for pregnancy outcomes in type 1 and type 2 diabetes","volume":"51","author":"Seah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intern. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Britten, F.L., Lai, C.T., Geddes, D.T., Callaway, L.K., and Duncan, E.L. (2022). Is secretory activation delayed in women with type two diabetes? A pilot study. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14071323"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kapustin, R.V., Kopteeva, E.V., Alekseenkova, E.N., Tsybuk, E.M., Arzhanova, O.N., and Kogan, I.Y. (2022). Risk factors for shoulder dystocia during labor in women with diabetes mellitus. Obstet. Gynecol., 54\u201363.","DOI":"10.18565\/aig.2022.9.54-63"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/10641955.2022.2068574","article-title":"Prediction of preeclampsia based on maternal serum endoglin level in women with pregestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"41","author":"Kapustin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hypertens. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2643","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-023-07187-2","article-title":"Diabetes and Pregnancy Study (DAPSY): A 10-year single-center cohort study of pregnancies affected by diabetes","volume":"309","author":"Kapustin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-5491.2000.00215.x","article-title":"Perinatal mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"17","author":"Cundy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-5491.2002.00729.x","article-title":"Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Cundy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2603","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-0555","article-title":"Differing causes of pregnancy loss in type 1 and type 2 diabetes","volume":"30","author":"Cundy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2006.12.001","article-title":"A multicenter Italian study on pregnancy outcome in women with diabetes","volume":"18","author":"Lapolla","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2009.04.015","article-title":"Near-optimal glycemic control in Chilean women with pregestational type 2 diabetes: Persistent macrosomia relates to maternal pre-pregnancy overweight","volume":"85","author":"Olmos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2005.01784.x","article-title":"The pregnancies of women with type 2 diabetes: Poor outcomes but opportunities for improvement","volume":"22","author":"Roland","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ14-0140","article-title":"Pregnancy outcomes in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus in a retrospective multi-institutional study in Japan","volume":"61","author":"Sato","year":"2014","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2015.08.004","article-title":"Type 1, type 2 and gestational diabetes mellitus differentially impact placental pathologic characteristics of uteroplacental malperfusion","volume":"36","author":"Huynh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2016.236","article-title":"Growth and body mass index during the first 14 years of life in offspring from women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"81","author":"Hammoud","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.13337","article-title":"The duration of intrapartum maternal hyperglycaemia predicts neonatal hypoglycaemia in women with pre-existing diabetes","volume":"34","author":"Joshi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1002\/ijgo.12590","article-title":"Temporal changes in characteristics and outcomes among pregnant women with pre-gestational diabetes","volume":"143","author":"Alessi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/10641955.2019.1704002","article-title":"Preeclampsia in women with pregestational diabetes: A cohort study","volume":"39","author":"Alessi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertens. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1938","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-4943-9","article-title":"Factors associated with stillbirth in women with diabetes","volume":"62","author":"Mackin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stogianni, A., Lendahls, L., Landin-Olsson, M., and Thunander, M. (2019). Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by diabetes, and control pregnancies, in Kronoberg, Sweden. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-019-2269-8"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2873","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-020-00932-9","article-title":"Pre-gestational diabetes and pregnancy outcomes","volume":"11","author":"Ali","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.14350","article-title":"Need for less tight glucose control in early pregnancy after embryogenesis due to high risk of maternal hypoglycaemia in women with pre-existing diabetes can be compensated by good control in late pregnancy","volume":"37","author":"Hauffe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morikawa, M., Kato-Hirayama, E., Mayama, M., Saito, Y., Nakagawa, K., Umazume, T., Chiba, K., Kawaguchi, S., Okuyama, K., and Watari, H. (2020). Glycemic control and fetal growth of women with diabetes mellitus and subsequent hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230488"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2020.1767572","article-title":"Small-for-gestational-age placentas associate with an increased risk of adverse outcomes in pregnancies complicated by either type I or type II pregestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"35","author":"Starikov","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Matern.-Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guarnotta, V., Mineo, M.I., Giacchetto, E., Imbergamo, M.P., and Giordano, C. (2021). Maternal\u2013foetal complications in pregnancy: A retrospective comparison between type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-021-03702-y"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.4103\/jod.jod_29_21","article-title":"Pregnancy outcome in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus in Dubai Hospital: A retrospective observational study","volume":"12","author":"Saquib","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rao, C., and Ping, F. (2022). Comparison of insulin requirements across gestation in women with hyperglycemia in pregnancy: A prospective cohort study. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1013663"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cordero, L., Stenger, M.R., Landon, M.B., and Nankervis, C.A. (2022). Exclusive breastfeeding among women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-022-04411-w"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cordero, L., Stenger, M.R., Landon, M.B., and Nankervis, C.A. (2022). Impact of excessive gestational weight gain on exclusive breastfeeding among women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes and obesity. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0277599"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjog.2023.07.005","article-title":"Characteristics of pregnancy complicated with type 1 and type 2 diabetes","volume":"62","author":"Koyama","year":"2023","journal-title":"Taiwan. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballesteros, M., Guarque, A., Ingles, M., Vilanova, N., Lopez, M., Martin, L., Jane, M., Puerto, L., Martinez, M., and De la Flor, M. (2024). Prematurity and congenital malformations differ according to the type of pregestational diabetes. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-024-06470-7"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"313","article-title":"Diabetic pregnancy in women over 35 years old","volume":"33","author":"Nsiri","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Ist. Super. Sanit\u00e0"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajogmf.2019.100031","article-title":"Adherence to self-glucose monitoring recommendations and perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus","volume":"1","author":"Wernimont","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. MFM"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ladfors, L., Shaat, N., Wiberg, N., Katasarou, A., Berntorp, K., and Kristensen, K. (2017). Fetal overgrowth in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187917"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12490","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12490","article-title":"Maternal body mass index, excess gestational weight gain, and diabetes are positively associated with neonatal adiposity in the Pregnancy and Neonatal Diabetes Outcomes in Remote Australia study","volume":"14","author":"Longmore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee (2026). 15. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes\u20142026. Diabetes Care, 49, S321\u2013S338.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc26-S015"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/13\/5260\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T14:40:12Z","timestamp":1783348812000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/13\/5260"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm15135260"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm15135260","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]]}}}