{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T15:14:25Z","timestamp":1783610065588,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783555200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: To evaluate microstructural and morphological alterations of the extraocular optic nerve in patients with idiopathic Parkinson\u2019s disease (IPD) using MRI-based texture analysis and to compare these findings with those of healthy controls. Methods: This retrospective study included 74 participants (37 IPD patients and 37 age- and sex-matched controls). IPD diagnosis was established according to the UK Parkinson\u2019s Disease Society Brain Bank criteria. Coronal T2-weighted images obtained from a 1.5-T MRI system were retrospectively analyzed. A round region of interest was placed on the intraorbital extraocular segment of the optic nerve for histogram-based and radiomic texture analyses. Optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) was also measured. As no significant differences were observed between right and left eyes, the mean value of both eyes was used for statistical analyses. Statistical analyses included independent samples t-test, Mann\u2013Whitney U test, and chi-square test. Results: No significant differences were observed between groups regarding age or sex (p &gt; 0.05). ONSD was significantly greater in the IPD group than in healthy controls (5.2 \u00b1 0.8 mm vs. 3.2 \u00b1 0.5 mm, p &lt; 0.05). Histogram analysis demonstrated significantly lower entropy values in patients with IPD (p &lt; 0.05). In GLRLM analysis, short-run emphasis and high gray-level run emphasis were significantly lower, whereas long-run emphasis and low gray-level run emphasis were significantly higher in the IPD group (p &lt; 0.05). GLSZM analysis revealed increased small zone emphasis and decreased large zone emphasis parameters in patients with IPD compared with controls (p &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: MRI-based texture analysis reveals significant structural and microstructural alterations in the extraocular optic nerve in IPD, supporting its potential role as a non-invasive imaging biomarker for subclinical visual pathway involvement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15145388","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T14:17:51Z","timestamp":1783606671000},"page":"5388","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["MRI-Based Texture Analysis of the Extraocular Optic Nerve in Idiopathic Parkinson\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3789-6571","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seda Nida","family":"Karakucuk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Kahramanmara\u015f 46040, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2588-9013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Murat","family":"Baykara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Haydarpasa Numune Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Sciences, Istanbul 34752, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cemile Buket","family":"Tugan Y\u0131ld\u0131z","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Kahramanmara\u015f 46040, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25945","article-title":"The prevalence of Parkinson\u2019s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Pringsheim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"2473","article-title":"Decreased dopamine in the retinas of patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"31","author":"Harnois","year":"1990","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Balc\u0131, S.Y. (2012). Glokomlu Ve Parkinson\u2019Lu Olgularda Optik Koherens Tomografi Ile Retina Sinir Lifi Tabakas\u0131, Ganglion H\u00fccre Kompleksi, Lamina Kribroza Ve Koroid Kal\u0131nl\u0131k \u00d6l\u00e7\u00fcmlerinin De\u011ferlendirilmesi Ve Normal Olgularla Kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, Marmara Universitesi."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-13062","article-title":"Electrophysiology and optical coherence tomography to evaluate Parkinson disease severity","volume":"55","author":"Satue","year":"2014","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, Z., Xie, F., Li, H., Yuan, F., Zeng, L., Shi, L., Zhu, S., Lu, X., Wei, X., and Wang, Q. (2022). Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness and associations with cognitive impairment in Parkinson\u2019s disease. Front. Aging Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.832768"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crad.2004.07.008","article-title":"Texture analysis of medical images","volume":"59","author":"Castellano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A2061","article-title":"Texture analysis: A review of neurologic MR imaging applications","volume":"31","author":"Kassner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2014.01.003","article-title":"MRI texture heterogeneity in the optic nerve predicts visual recovery after acute optic neuritis","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doustar, J., Torbati, T., Black, K.L., Koronyo, Y., and Koronyo-Hamaoui, M. (2017). Optical Coherence Tomography in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front. Neurol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00701"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16475","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.16475","article-title":"Exploring amyotrophic lateral sclerosis through the visual system: A systematic review","volume":"31","author":"Khanna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R139","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddx273","article-title":"Optic neuropathies: The tip of the neurodegeneration iceberg","volume":"26","author":"Carelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.24920\/003507","article-title":"MRI histogram texture feature analysis of the optic nerve in the patients with optic neuritis","volume":"34","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. Med. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"285","article-title":"Evaluation of optic nerve by histogram analysis on MRI in patients with isolated optic neuritis","volume":"9","author":"Baykara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-023-01884-1","article-title":"Using Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter for Intracranial Pressure (ICP) Monitoring in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Scoping Review","volume":"40","author":"Fariyike","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurocrit. Care"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"133","article-title":"Optimal measurement distance for optic nerve sheath diameter in idiopathic intracranial hypertension via magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"31","author":"Ege","year":"2025","journal-title":"Turk. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2147\/EB.S319543","article-title":"Are Generalized Reduced Cerebrospinal Fluid Dynamics and Optic Nerve Sheath Compartmentation Sequential Steps in the Pathogenesis of Normal-Tension Glaucoma? [Response to Letter]","volume":"13","author":"Killer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eye Brain"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7920","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08172-x","article-title":"Mapping physiological inputs from multiple photoreceptor systems to dopaminergic amacrine cells in the mouse retina","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s41531-019-0085-5","article-title":"Altered dynamics of visual contextual interactions in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"5","author":"Vanegas","year":"2019","journal-title":"npj Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2008.03.004","article-title":"Modulation of horizontal cell function by dopaminergic ligands in mammalian retina","volume":"48","author":"Pflug","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25944","article-title":"Retinal thickness predicts the risk of cognitive decline in Parkinson disease","volume":"89","author":"Arana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2019.04.023","article-title":"Retinal layers in Parkinson\u2019s disease: A meta-analysis of spectral-domain optical coherence tomography studies","volume":"64","author":"Chrysou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Park. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2017161732","article-title":"Visual system involvement in patients with newly diagnosed Parkinson disease","volume":"285","author":"Arrigo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borowska, M., Mojsak, M., B\u0119bas, E., Pauk, J., H\u0142adu\u0144ski, M., and Domino, M. (2026). Machine learning using entropy\u2013based texture features from MRI to differentiate histological subtypes of non\u2013small cell lung cancer identified as metabolically active on PET\/MRI. PLoS ONE, 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0338373"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1177\/13872877251331231","article-title":"Diagnosing neurodegenerative disorders using retina as an external window: A systematic review of OCT-MRI correlations","volume":"105","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. JAD"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2022.109671","article-title":"Texture analysis in brain T2 and diffusion MRI differentiates histology-verified grey and white matter pathology types in multiple sclerosis","volume":"379","author":"Hosseinpour","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/14\/5388\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T14:31:15Z","timestamp":1783607475000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/14\/5388"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm15145388"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm15145388","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]]}}}