{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T05:04:03Z","timestamp":1784264643536,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784073600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Meningiomas are the most common central nervous system tumour and are associated with significant morbidity. Mounting evidence implicates the role of exogenous hormones in meningioma development and growth. This has led to increasing pressure on healthcare professionals to understand the risk profile of different hormonal compounds with regards to meningioma incidence and growth. This is particularly relevant when managing patients with pre-existing meningioma tumours or with one or more risk factors for meningioma formation. The aim of this review was to summarise existing evidence from clinical studies (cohort and case\u2013control) concerning the risk of meningioma associated with different types of exogenous hormones and the associated meningioma characteristics. The literature review identified over 30 cohort and case\u2013control studies published between 2003 and 2026. Studies demonstrated a mixed risk profile of broadly defined hormonal replacement therapy and hormonal contraceptives; however, many of these studies did not capture specific information about duration, dose or medication type. Risk associated with synthetic progestin-containing compounds such as depot medroxyprogesterone and desogestrel contraceptives was higher and related to duration of use. Highly potent synthetic progestins including cyproterone acetate (CPA) carried the strongest risk profile and showed a strong association with multiple meningiomas and anterior\/middle skull base location. In conclusion, there is strong evidence for a link between meningioma incidence and highly potent synthetic progestins such as CPA, but further evidence is needed regarding menopausal hormone therapy and broadly defined oral contraceptives, as well as the doses and durations that are associated with clinically relevant risk. There is a space for translational research in this area to better understand the molecular basis underlying the relationship between hormones and meningioma growth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15145560","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T03:34:23Z","timestamp":1784172863000},"page":"5560","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exogenous Hormones and Their Clinical Implications for the Development and Growth of Meningioma Tumours"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Holly","family":"Roy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospitals Plymouth NHS Trust, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1774-0665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marios","family":"Stavrakas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of ENT, University Hospitals Plymouth NHS Trust, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3172-9702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samiul","family":"Muquit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospitals Plymouth NHS Trust, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab150","article-title":"EANO guideline on the diagnosis and management of meningiomas","volume":"23","author":"Goldbrunner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab106","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: A summary","volume":"23","author":"Louis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noae170","article-title":"CIMPACT-NOW update 8: Clarifications on molecular risk parameters and recommendations for WHO grading of meningiomas","volume":"27","author":"Sahm","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1377","article-title":"Validation of a scoring system to evaluate the risk of rapid growth of intracranial meningiomas in neurofibromatosis type 2 patients","volume":"134","author":"Peyre","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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