{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T12:03:48Z","timestamp":1784721828743,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Clin. Med.","JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Chronic kidney disease is a growing global health concern, necessitating effective tools for early detection and monitoring. While non-contrast T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging offers a non-invasive means to assess kidney morphology, robust automated segmentation remains challenging due to limited annotated data, high inter-patient variability, and low signal-to-noise ratios. Methods: In this study, we address these obstacles by developing and evaluating a series of frugal learning methodologies for kidney segmentation in non-contrast MRI. Building upon the U-Net architecture, we aim to maximize segmentation accuracy despite scarce labeled data. Our experimental framework leverages three diverse datasets to evaluate performance-boosting strategies such as transfer learning: a clinically relevant local cohort (the Barlicki dataset) as the primary target domain and two auxiliary public datasets (AMOS22 and AbdomenCT). Utilizing these data streams, we systematically compare seven frugal learning strategies incorporating data augmentation, semi-supervised learning, and weak supervision against a fully supervised baseline. Results: The results demonstrate that frugal learning methods enable accurate and reliable kidney segmentation while substantially reducing the need for manual annotations. The best-performing semi-supervised and transfer learning approaches achieved a Dice similarity coefficient of 0.89, which was only moderately lower than that of the fully supervised model (Dice = 0.92). Conclusions: This work highlights the potential of data-efficient deep learning techniques to accelerate the adoption of automated kidney segmentation in clinical workflows, particularly in settings where annotated medical images are limited.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15145747","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T10:48:28Z","timestamp":1784717308000},"page":"5747","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Frugal Learning Methods for Kidney Segmentation in Non-Contrast MRI"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jan","family":"Podlaszewski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Lodz University of Technology, 90-924 \u0141\u00f3d\u017a, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4045-5870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur","family":"Klepaczko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Lodz University of Technology, 90-924 \u0141\u00f3d\u017a, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0474-7430","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludomir","family":"Stefa\u0144czyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Diagnostic Imaging, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8288-4767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Majos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Normal and Clinical Anatomy, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1159\/000506528","article-title":"Kidney Health for Everyone Everywhere\u2014From Prevention to Detection and Equitable Access to Care","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graham-Brown, M.P., Singh, A., Wormleighton, J., Brunskill, N.J., McCann, G.P., Barratt, J., Burton, J.O., and Xu, G. 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