{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T09:02:45Z","timestamp":1785315765346,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Clin. Med.","JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide\/glucagon-like peptide-1 (GIP\/GLP-1) receptor agonists have substantially improved the management of obesity and cardiometabolic disease, providing significant benefits on weight reduction, glycemic control, and cardiovascular outcomes. Despite these advances, gastrointestinal (GI) adverse events remain a major cause of dose reduction, treatment interruption, and poor long-term adherence. Increasing evidence suggests that interactions between incretin-based therapies and the intestinal microenvironment may contribute to GI tolerability and influence treatment persistence. Methods: We conducted a narrative review of the literature examining the relationship between incretin-based therapies, gut microbiota, intestinal barrier function, and microbial metabolites. Evidence from randomized clinical trials, observational studies, systematic reviews, and mechanistic investigations was evaluated to explore potential gut-directed supportive strategies during incretin-based treatment. Results: Preclinical and mechanistic evidence suggests possible bidirectional interactions between incretin pharmacology and the intestinal microenvironment, whereas direct human evidence remains limited and inconsistent. Alterations in gastrointestinal motility induced by GLP-1 receptor agonists could theoretically influence microbial composition and fermentation dynamics, although human studies have not consistently demonstrated significant microbiota changes. Based on these observations, we propose the Incretin\u2013Microbiota Tolerance Axis (IMTA) as a conceptual framework linking gut homeostasis, GI tolerability, and treatment adherence. Among potential supportive interventions, partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) may promote SCFA-producing microbiota and improve bowel function, whereas simethicone may provide symptomatic relief of gas-related discomfort during dose escalation. SCFA-supportive nutritional approaches may further contribute to maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. Conclusions: Optimization of the intestinal microenvironment may represent a complementary strategy to improve GI tolerability and support long-term adherence during incretin-based therapy. Although the IMTA framework is supported by biological plausibility and emerging evidence, prospective clinical studies are required to determine whether microbiota-targeted interventions improve treatment persistence and cardiometabolic outcomes in patients receiving GLP-1 receptor agonists or dual GIP\/GLP-1 receptor agonists.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15155909","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T08:16:52Z","timestamp":1785313012000},"page":"5909","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Beyond Weight Loss: Gut Microenvironment Modulation to Enhance Cardiometabolic Outcomes and Long-Term Adherence During Incretin-Based Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Calogero","family":"Geraci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardio Obesity Group, ACRIS APS (Associazione Cuore, Reni e Ipertensione Sicilia), 93100 San Cataldo, CL, Italy"},{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Azienda Sanitaria Provinciale of Caltanissetta (ASP), 93100 Caltanissetta, CL, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3085-2783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"La Rocca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, 95122 Catania, CT, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore Massimo","family":"Petrina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Azienda Sanitaria Provinciale of Ragusa (ASP), 97100 Ragusa, RG, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agostino","family":"Buonauro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Santa Maria Della Piet\u00e0 Hospital, ASL Napoli 3 Sud, 80035 Nola, NA, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Morello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Community Nutrition Biologist, 93100 Caltanissetta, CL, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Patern\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, EN, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6329-1680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ciro","family":"Santoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Health and Nutritional Science, Univertisy of Calabria Rende (CS), 87036 Arcavacata, CS, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulio","family":"Geraci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, EN, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0051-7152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Federico II University Hospital, 80131 Naples, NA, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2032183","article-title":"Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity","volume":"384","author":"Wilding","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. 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