{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T10:11:22Z","timestamp":1788862282393,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Italian Ministry of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Clin. Med.","JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Machine learning (ML) is increasingly applied in medicine, underscoring the need for transparent and clinically relevant models. In gastrointestinal oncology, most ML studies rely on raw imaging data, which limits clinical adoption due to poor interpretability and the difficulty of collecting high-quality, large-scale video and image datasets in routine practice. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) plays a central role in the evaluation of pancreatic cancer; however, structured EUS features remain underused in predictive modeling. Objective: To assess the performance and interpretability of ML models for diagnosing pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) using routinely collected EUS variables. Methods: We conducted a retrospective multicenter study using data from two Italian hospitals (n = 641) for model training and internal validation and from a third hospital (n = 120) for external validation, collected from 2015 to 2023. Decision trees, random forests, na\u00efve Bayes and other classifiers were developed and evaluated. Model performance was assessed in terms of discriminative ability, calibration, and selective prediction. Results: All models demonstrated high discriminative performance (AUC \u2265 0.90). Decision trees provided the most favorable balance between interpretability and accuracy (balanced accuracy = 0.87; sensitivity = 0.89). Calibration and selective prediction analyses confirmed the robustness of the models. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the feasibility of implementing interpretable yet high-performing ML models for PDAC diagnosis in real-life endoscopic settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15156094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T10:41:42Z","timestamp":1785926502000},"page":"6094","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Explainable Machine Learning for Detecting Pancreatic Cancer from Structured Endoscopic Ultrasound Data: A Retrospective Multicenter Observational Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2695-3157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nunzio","family":"Zignani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8888-8371","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Balzarini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy Unit, ASST Sette Laghi, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9409-3865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gloria","family":"Lopiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Systems and Communication, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0027-5157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Campagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Systems and Communication, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Ospedale Galeazzi Sant\u2019Ambrogio, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Emanuele","family":"Dabizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca\u2019 Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1212-3954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elia","family":"Fracas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Millefanti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy Unit, ASST Sette Laghi, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Segato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy Unit, ASST Sette Laghi, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Gianpaolo","family":"Cengia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Endoscopy Unit, ASST Spedali Civili, Street, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Villanacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, ASST Spedali Civili, Street, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Guido","family":"Missale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Endoscopy Unit, ASST Spedali Civili, Street, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1558-8604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maurizio","family":"Vecchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca\u2019 Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Gian Eugenio","family":"Tontini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca\u2019 Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20122 Milan, 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