{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T02:47:20Z","timestamp":1789958840328,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,10]],"date-time":"2015-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1428624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1ZIAHL006163"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1ZIAHL006163"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The limited sensitivity of the historical treatment response criteria for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has resulted in a different paradigm for treatment compared with most other cancers presenting with widely disseminated disease. Initial cytotoxic induction chemotherapy is often able to reduce tumor burden to a level sufficient to meet the current criteria for \u201ccomplete\u201d remission. Nevertheless, most AML patients ultimately die from their disease, most commonly as clinically evident relapsed AML. Despite a variety of available salvage therapy options, prognosis in patients with relapsed or refractory AML is generally poor. In this review, we outline the commonly utilized salvage cytotoxic therapy interventions and then highlight novel investigational efforts currently in clinical trials using both pathway-targeted agents and immunotherapy based approaches. We conclude that there is no current standard of care for adult relapsed or refractory AML other than offering referral to an appropriate clinical trial.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm4040665","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,10]],"date-time":"2015-04-10T17:06:18Z","timestamp":1428685578000},"page":"665-695","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":103,"title":["Current Approaches in the Treatment of Relapsed and Refractory Acute Myeloid Leukemia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Nestor","family":"Ramos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Myeloid Malignancies Section, Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1583, USA"},{"name":"Department of Hematology-Oncology, John P. Murtha Cancer Center, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD 20889, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clifton","family":"Mo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hematology-Oncology, John P. Murtha Cancer Center, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD 20889, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judith","family":"Karp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematologic Malignancies, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Hourigan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Myeloid Malignancies Section, Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1583, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"American Cancer Society (2015). 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