{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T02:02:49Z","timestamp":1780452169947,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,2]],"date-time":"2019-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The incidence of autoimmune type 1 diabetes (T1DM) is increasing worldwide and disease onset tends to occur at a younger age. Unfortunately, clinical trials aiming to detect predictive factors of disease, in individuals with a high risk of T1DM, reported negative results. Hence, actually there are no tools or strategies to prevent T1DM onset. The importance of the gut microbiome in autoimmune diseases is increasingly recognized and recent data suggest that intestinal dysbiosis has a pathogenic role in T1DM by affecting both intestinal immunostasis and the permeability of the gut barrier. An improved understanding of the mechanisms whereby dysbiosis in the gut favors T1DM development may help develop new intervention strategies to reduce both the incidence and burden of T1DM. This review summarizes available data on the associations between gut microbiota and T1DM in both experimental animals and humans and discusses future perspectives in this novel and exciting area of research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8111843","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,4]],"date-time":"2019-11-04T04:13:08Z","timestamp":1572840788000},"page":"1843","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Gastrointestinal Microbiota and Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: The State of Art"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Marilena","family":"Durazzo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, C.so A.M. Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna","family":"Ferro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, C.so A.M. Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriella","family":"Gruden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, C.so A.M. Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2015.05.013","article-title":"The gut microbiota and type 1 diabetes","volume":"159","author":"Wong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1601519","article-title":"The influence of the microbiome on type 1 diabetes","volume":"198","author":"Paun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2015.02.006","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes and gut microbiota: Friend or foe?","volume":"98","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2019). Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care, 4, S13\u2013S28."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation (2019, November 01). Available online: http:\/\/www.diabetesatlas.org."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5448.2007.00280.x","article-title":"Worldwide childhood type 1 diabetes incidence\u2013what can we learn from epidemiology?","volume":"8","author":"Soltesz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatric Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2142","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-012-2571-8","article-title":"Trends in childhood type 1 diabetes incidence in Europe during 1989\u20132008: Evidence of non-uniformity over time in rates of increase","volume":"55","author":"Patterson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60765-5","article-title":"Time trends in the incidence of type 1 diabetes in Finnish children: A cohort study","volume":"371","author":"Harjutsalo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-1040","article-title":"Prediction of type 1 diabetes in the general population","volume":"33","author":"Knip","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-017-4308-1","article-title":"Early prediction of autoimmune (type 1) diabetes","volume":"60","author":"Regnell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-9909","article-title":"Diabetic ketoacidosis in infants, children, and adolescents: A consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association","volume":"29","author":"Wolfsdorf","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes care"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dayan, C.M., Korah, M., Tatovic, D., Bundy, B.N., and Herold, K.C. (2019). Changing the landscape for type 1 diabetes: The first step to prevention. Lancet.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)32127-0"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30582-7","article-title":"Genetic risk factors for type 1 diabetes","volume":"387","author":"Pociot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humimm.2014.09.008","article-title":"SNPs in the exons of Toll-like receptors are associated with susceptibility to type 1 diabetes in Chinese population","volume":"75","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Infante, M., Ricordi, C., Sanchez, J., Clare-Salzler, M.J., Padilla, N., Fuenmayor, V., Chavez, C., Alvarez, A., Baidal, D., and Alejandro, R. (2019). Influence of Vitamin D on Islet Autoimmunity and Beta-Cell Function in Type 1 Diabetes. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11092185"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"750","article-title":"Vitamin D level and gene polymorphisms in Korean children with type 1 diabetes","volume":"20","author":"Nam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatric Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S201525","article-title":"Vitamin D receptor rs7975232, rs731236 and rs1544410 single nucleotide polymorphisms, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in Egyptian children with type 1 diabetes mellitus: Effect of vitamin D co-therapy","volume":"12","author":"Ahmed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30507-4","article-title":"Environmental risk factors for type 1 diabetes","volume":"387","author":"Rewers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1104816","article-title":"Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine","volume":"307","author":"Ley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.013","article-title":"Are we really vastly outnumbered? Revisiting the ratio of bacterial to host cells in humans","volume":"164","author":"Sender","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0396-x","article-title":"Combining 16S rRNA gene variable regions enables high-resolution microbial community profiling","volume":"6","author":"Fuks","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poretsky, R., Rodriguez-R, L.M., Luo, C., Tsementzi, D., and Konstantinidis, K.T. (2014). Strengths and limitations of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in revealing temporal microbial community dynamics. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0093827"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08821","article-title":"A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing","volume":"464","author":"Qin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1110591","article-title":"Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora","volume":"308","author":"Eckburg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11053","article-title":"Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography","volume":"486","author":"Yatsunenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.04.004","article-title":"Dynamics and stabilization of the human gut microbiome during the first year of life","volume":"17","author":"Roswall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11971","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002601107","article-title":"Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns","volume":"107","author":"Costello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.06.005","article-title":"Mother-to-infant microbial transmission from different body sites shapes the developing infant gut microbiome","volume":"24","author":"Ferretti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinninella, E., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Franceschi, F., Miggiano, G.A.D., Gasbarrini, A., and Mele, M.C. (2019). What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? a changing ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7010014"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-015-0104-7","article-title":"The role of breast-feeding in infant immune system: A systems perspective on the intestinal microbiome","volume":"3","author":"Praveen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-017-1175-y","article-title":"Influence of diet on the gut microbiome and implications for human health","volume":"15","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14691","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1005963107","article-title":"Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa","volume":"107","author":"Cavalieri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.23736\/S0031-0808.18.03454-7","article-title":"The effect of probiotics on glycemic index","volume":"60","author":"Venkataraman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Panminerva Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx426","article-title":"Antibiotic therapy in neonates and impact on gut microbiota and antibiotic resistance development: A systematic review","volume":"73","author":"Fjalstad","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01520-08","article-title":"Reproducible community dynamics of the gastrointestinal microbiota following antibiotic perturbation","volume":"77","author":"Antonopoulos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11319","article-title":"Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly","volume":"488","author":"Claesson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2015.08.015","article-title":"Pathways and functions of gut microbiota metabolism impacting host physiology","volume":"36","author":"Krishnan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-017-0691-z","article-title":"Beneficial effects on host energy metabolism of short-chain fatty acids and vitamins produced by commensal and probiotic bacteria","volume":"16","author":"LeBlanc","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18847","article-title":"The microbiome and innate immunity","volume":"535","author":"Thaiss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201848009","article-title":"Short-Chain fatty acids: Bacterial messengers modulating the immunometabolism of T cells","volume":"49","author":"Luu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01830","article-title":"Aspects of gut microbiota and immune system interactions in infectious diseases, immunopathology and cancer","volume":"9","author":"Lazar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skonieczna-\u017bydecka, K., Marlicz, W., Misera, A., Koulaouzidis, A., and \u0141oniewski, I. (2018). Microbiome\u2014The Missing Link in the Gut-Brain Axis: Focus on Its Role in Gastrointestinal and Mental Health. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201810.0554.v1"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12308","article-title":"Defining dysbiosis and its influence on host immunity and disease","volume":"16","author":"Petersen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.04.006","article-title":"Antibiotics, pediatric dysbiosis, and disease","volume":"17","author":"Vangay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Br\u00fcssow, H. (2019). Problems with the concept of gut microbiota dysbiosis. Microb. Biotechnol., 1\u201312."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2015.114","article-title":"Prolonged antibiotic treatment induces a diabetogenic intestinal microbiome that accelerates diabetes in NOD mice","volume":"10","author":"Brown","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-015-0080-y","article-title":"Cross-fostering immediately after birth induces a permanent microbiota shift that is shaped by the nursing mother","volume":"3","author":"Daft","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07336","article-title":"Innate immunity and intestinal microbiota in the development of Type 1 diabetes","volume":"455","author":"Wen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.3HI0119-024RR","article-title":"Frontline Science: Abnormalities in the gut mucosa of non-obese diabetic mice precede the onset of type 1 diabetes","volume":"106","author":"Miranda","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.23736\/S1120-4826.19.02554-0","article-title":"Physiopathology of intestinal barrier and the role of zonulin","volume":"31","author":"Caviglia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Minerva Biotecnol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MPG.0000159636.19346.C1","article-title":"Changes in intestinal morphology and permeability in the biobreeding rat before the onset of type 1 diabetes","volume":"40","author":"Neu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Pediatric Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.2337\/db08-0331","article-title":"The \u201cperfect storm\u201d for type 1 diabetes: The complex interplay between intestinal microbiota, gut permeability, and mucosal immunity","volume":"57","author":"Vaarala","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-009-1626-y","article-title":"Gut barrier disruption by an enteric bacterial pathogen accelerates insulitis in NOD mice","volume":"53","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17729","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0509006102","article-title":"Endocrine self and gut non-self intersect in the pancreatic lymph nodes","volume":"102","author":"Turley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15140","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1814558116","article-title":"Loss of gut barrier integrity triggers activation of islet-reactive T cells and autoimmune diabetes","volume":"116","author":"Sorini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-005-1831-2","article-title":"Oral probiotic administration induces interleukin-10 production and prevents spontaneous autoimmune diabetes in the non-obese diabetic mouse","volume":"48","author":"Calcinaro","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7569431","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7569431","article-title":"Oral probiotic VSL# 3 prevents autoimmune diabetes by modulating microbiota and promoting indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase-enriched tolerogenic intestinal environment","volume":"2016","author":"Dolpady","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valladares, R., Sankar, D., Li, N., Williams, E., Lai, K.K., Abdelgeliel, A.S., Gonzalez, C.F., Wasserfall, C.H., Larkin, J., and Schatz, D. (2010). Lactobacillus johnsonii N6. 2 mitigates the development of type 1 diabetes in BB-DP rats. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010507"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601006","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201601006","article-title":"Specific inulin-type fructan fibers protect against autoimmune diabetes by modulating gut immunity, barrier function, and microbiota homeostasis","volume":"61","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-012-2564-7","article-title":"Early life treatment with vancomycin propagates Akkermansia muciniphila and reduces diabetes incidence in the NOD mouse","volume":"55","author":"Hansen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-006-0334-0","article-title":"Antibiotic treatment partially protects against type 1 diabetes in the Bio-Breeding diabetes-prone rat. Is the gut flora involved in the development of type 1 diabetes?","volume":"49","author":"Brugman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2016.05.001","article-title":"Different immunological responses to early-life antibiotic exposure affecting autoimmune diabetes development in NOD mice","volume":"72","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16140","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.140","article-title":"Antibiotic-Mediated gut microbiome perturbation accelerates development of type 1 diabetes in mice","volume":"1","author":"Livanos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3805","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1201257","article-title":"Prevention of virus-induced type 1 diabetes with antibiotic therapy","volume":"189","author":"Hara","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3713","article-title":"Gut microbial metabolites limit the frequency of autoimmune T cells and protect against type 1 diabetes","volume":"18","author":"Richards","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Needell, J.C., Ir, D., Robertson, C.E., Kroehl, M.E., Frank, D.N., and Zipris, D. (2017). Maternal treatment with short-chain fatty acids modulates the intestinal microbiota and immunity and ameliorates type 1 diabetes in the offspring. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0183786"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Candon, S., Perez-Arroyo, A., Marquet, C., Valette, F., Foray, A.P., Pelletier, B., Milani, C., Ventura, M., Bach, J.F., and Chatenoud, L. (2015). Antibiotics in early life alter the gut microbiome and increase disease incidence in a spontaneous mouse model of autoimmune insulin-dependent diabetes. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125448"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37816","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.37816","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced acceleration of type 1 diabetes alters maturation of innate intestinal immunity","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1733","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01733","article-title":"Modulation of gut microbiota by low methoxyl pectin attenuates type 1 diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01345","article-title":"Clostridium butyricum CGMCC0313.1 protects against autoimmune diabetes by modulating intestinal immune homeostasis and inducing pancreatic regulatory T cells","volume":"8","author":"Jia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.01.001","article-title":"The dynamics of the human infant gut microbiome in development and in progression toward type 1 diabetes","volume":"17","author":"Kostic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1238","article-title":"Fecal microbiota composition differs between children with \u03b2-cell autoimmunity and those without","volume":"62","author":"Knip","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2010.92","article-title":"Toward defining the autoimmune microbiome for type 1 diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Giongo","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-014-3274-0","article-title":"Aberrant gut microbiota composition at the onset of type 1 diabetes in young children","volume":"57","author":"Fuentes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murri, M., Leiva, I., Gomez-Zumaquero, J.M., Tinahones, F.J., Cardona, F., Soriguer, F., and Queipo-Ortu\u00f1o, M.I. (2013). Gut microbiota in children with type 1 diabetes differs from that in healthy children: A case-control study. BMC Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-11-46"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"678","article-title":"Bacteroides dorei dominates gut microbiome prior to autoimmunity in Finnish children at high risk for type 1 diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Ardissone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0620-2","article-title":"The human gut microbiome in early-onset type 1 diabetes from the TEDDY study","volume":"562","author":"Vatanen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0163-4","article-title":"Towards a functional hypothesis relating anti-islet cell autoimmunity to the dietary impact on microbial communities and butyrate production","volume":"4","author":"Endesfelder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-0777","article-title":"Intestinal metaproteomics reveals host-microbiota interactions in subjects at risk for type 1 diabetes","volume":"41","author":"Gavin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11460-x","article-title":"Genetic risk for autoimmunity is associated with distinct changes in the human gut microbiome","volume":"10","author":"Russell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4427","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2019-00481","article-title":"Effect of prebiotic on microbiota, intestinal permeability and glycemic control in children with type 1 diabetes","volume":"104","author":"Ho","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2015.2757","article-title":"Association of early exposure of probiotics and islet autoimmunity in the TEDDY study","volume":"170","author":"Uusitalo","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatric"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v17.i12.1519","article-title":"Potential beneficial effects of butyrate in intestinal and extraintestinal diseases","volume":"17","author":"Canani","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.04.007","article-title":"Variation in microbiome LPS immunogenicity contributes to autoimmunity in humans","volume":"165","author":"Vatanen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2790","article-title":"Association between intestinal permeability and faecal microbiota composition in Italian children with beta cell autoimmunity at risk for type 1 diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Maffeis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"574","article-title":"Gut microbiome dysbiosis and increased intestinal permeability in children with islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes: A prospective cohort study","volume":"20","author":"Harbison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatric Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4039","article-title":"Partial restoration of the microbiota of cesarean-born infants via vaginal microbial transfer","volume":"22","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mishra, S., Wang, S., Nagpal, R., Miller, B., Singh, R., Taraphder, S., and Yadav, H. (2019). Probiotics and prebiotics for the amelioration of type 1 diabetes: Present and future perspectives. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7030067"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e017178","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-017178","article-title":"Effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 on beta-cell function in children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes: Protocol of a randomised controlled trial","volume":"7","author":"Groele","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/8\/11\/1843\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:31:23Z","timestamp":1760189483000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/8\/11\/1843"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,2]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm8111843"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm8111843","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,2]]}}}