{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T10:34:56Z","timestamp":1784716496038,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":184,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,3]],"date-time":"2020-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1596412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and aims: The gut microbiota is a complex ecosystem containing bacteria, viruses, fungi, yeasts and other single-celled organisms. It is involved in the development and maintenance of both innate and systemic immunity of the body. Emerging evidence has shown its role in liver diseases through the immune system cross-talk. We review herein literature data regarding the triangular interaction between gut microbiota, immune system and liver in health and disease. Methods: We conducted a search on the main medical databases for original articles, reviews, meta-analyses, randomized clinical trials and case series using the following keywords and acronyms and their associations: gut microbiota, microbiome, gut virome, immunity, gastrointestinal-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steato-hepatitis (NASH), alcoholic liver disease, liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma. Results: The gut microbiota consists of microorganisms that educate our systemic immunity through GALT and non-GALT interactions. The latter maintain health but are also involved in the pathophysiology and in the outcome of several liver diseases, particularly those with metabolic, toxic or immune-mediated etiology. In this context, gut virome has an emerging role in liver diseases and needs to be further investigated, especially due to the link reported between severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and hepatic dysfunctions. Conclusions: Changes in gut microbiota composition and alterations in the immune system response are involved in the pathogenesis of metabolic and immune-mediated liver diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9082488","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,3]],"date-time":"2020-08-03T07:45:57Z","timestamp":1596440757000},"page":"2488","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Gut Microbiota and Liver Interaction through Immune System Cross-Talk: A Comprehensive Review at the Time of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2101-1118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emidio","family":"Scarpellini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, \u201cMadonna del Soccorso\u201d General Hospital, San Benedetto del, 63074 Tronto, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, KU Leuven, Gasthuisberg University Hospital, TARGID, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6070-6716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sharmila","family":"Fagoonee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Biostructure and Bioimaging, National Research Council, Molecular Biotechnology Center, 10121 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9165-2367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Rinninella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nephrology and Urology Department, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology, Fondazione Policlinico A, Clinical Nutrition Unit, Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Medical Pathology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlo","family":"Rasetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, \u201cMadonna del Soccorso\u201d General Hospital, San Benedetto del, 63074 Tronto, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabella","family":"Aquila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Legal Medicine and Department of Surgical and Medical Sciences, University \u201cMagna Graecia\u201d of Catanzaro (UMG), 88100 Viale Europa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6998-8502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiziana","family":"Larussa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University \u201cMagna Gr\u00e6cia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pietrantonio","family":"Ricci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Legal Medicine and Department of Surgical and Medical Sciences, University \u201cMagna Graecia\u201d of Catanzaro (UMG), 88100 Viale Europa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5120-1046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Luzza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University \u201cMagna Gr\u00e6cia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5922-1524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludovico","family":"Abenavoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University \u201cMagna Gr\u00e6cia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinninella, E., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Franceschi, F., Miggiano, G.A.D., Gasbarrini, A., and Mele, M.C. 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