{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T22:35:12Z","timestamp":1791498912092,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":157,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]],"date-time":"2020-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1604620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Given that infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the leading cause of death amongst individuals living with HIV, understanding the complex mechanisms by which Mtb exacerbates HIV infection may lead to improved treatment options or adjuvant therapies. While it is well-understood how HIV compromises the immune system and leaves the host vulnerable to opportunistic infections such as Mtb, less is known about the interplay of disease once active Mtb is established. This review explores how glutathione (GSH) depletion, T cell exhaustion, granuloma formation, and TNF-\u03b1 upregulation, as a result of Mtb infection, leads to an increase in HIV disease severity. This review also examines the difficulties of treating coinfected patients and suggests further research on the clinical use of GSH supplementation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9113575","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]],"date-time":"2020-11-06T09:03:04Z","timestamp":1604653384000},"page":"3575","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Pathogenesis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Mycobacterium tuberculosis Co-Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Kevin","family":"Wong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lillie","family":"Blair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Banjanin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3766-3150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bunraj","family":"Grewal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shane","family":"Bowman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hailey","family":"Boyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4101-0048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grant","family":"Gerstner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyun Jun","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1847-287X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Panfilov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cho Ki","family":"Tam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Delaney","family":"Aguilar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2586-1160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishwanath","family":"Venketaraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific-NorthWest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA"},{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2020, June 25). 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