{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T22:38:13Z","timestamp":1777415893434,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]],"date-time":"2020-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>General anesthesia decreases the tone of upper airway muscles in a dose-dependent fashion, potentially narrowing the pharyngeal airway. We examined the effects of adding ketamine on the airway configuration after dexmedetomidine administration in spontaneously breathing children with normal airways. 25 children presenting for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the brain\/spine under general anesthesia were prospectively recruited in the study. Patients were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine bolus (2 mcg over 10 min) followed by dexmedetomidine infusion (2 mcg\u00b7kg\u22121\u00b7h) and ketamine and permitted to breathe spontaneously via the native airway. MR-CINE images of the upper airway were obtained with dexmedetomidine infusion alone (baseline) and 5, 10, and 15 min after administering ketamine bolus (2 mg\u00b7kg\u22121) in two anatomical axial planes at the nasopharynx and the retroglossal upper airway. Airway lumen is segmented with a semi-automatic image processing approach using a region-growing algorithm. Outcome measures of cross-sectional area, transverse and anterior-posterior diameters of the airway in axial planes at the level of the epiglottis in the retroglossal airway, and in the superior nasopharynx were evaluated for changes in airway size with sedation. Airway dimensions corresponding to the maximum, mean, and minimum sizes during a respiratory cycle were obtained to compare the temporal changes in the airway size. The dose-response of adding ketamine to dexmedetomidine alone condition on airway dimensions were examined using mixed-effects of covariance models. 22\/25 patients based on inclusion\/exclusion criteria were included in the final analysis. The changes in airway measures with the addition of ketamine, when compared to the baseline of dexmedetomidine alone, were statistically insignificant. The modest changes in airway dimensions are clinically less impactful and within the accuracy of the semi-automatic airway segmentation approach. The effect sizes were small for most airway measures. The duration of ketamine seems to not affect the airway size. In conclusion, adding ketamine to dexmedetomidine did not significantly reduce upper airway configuration when compared to dexmedetomidine alone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9113723","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]],"date-time":"2020-11-20T02:09:07Z","timestamp":1605838147000},"page":"3723","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Effects on the Upper Airway Morphology with Intravenous Addition of Ketamine after Dexmedetomidine Administration in Normal Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6053-3170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Goutham","family":"Mylavarapu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3456-503X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert J.","family":"Fleck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Department of Radiology, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michale S.","family":"Ok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lili","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Kandil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raouf S.","family":"Amin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5772-7137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bobby","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Mahmoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0b013e31822b8629","article-title":"Review article: Dexmedetomidine in children: Current knowledge and future applications","volume":"113","author":"Mason","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anesth. 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Anaesth."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/11\/3723\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:34:42Z","timestamp":1760178882000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/11\/3723"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm9113723"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9113723","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]]}}}