{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T04:16:56Z","timestamp":1782188216947,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Scientific Research Start-up Funds for Openly-Recruited Doctors of Gansu Agricultural University","award":["2017RCZX-13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017RCZX-13"]}]},{"name":"\u201cFuxi\u201d Youth Talent Program of Gansu Agricultural University","award":["Gaufx-03Y02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Gaufx-03Y02"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["31902339"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31902339"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Foundation for Youth Doctor of Gansu Province","award":["2021QB-026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021QB-026"]}]},{"name":"Special Funds for Discipline Construction of Gansu Agricultural University","award":["GAU-XKJS-2018-067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GAU-XKJS-2018-067"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JDB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autophagy has a potential regulatory effect on spermatogenesis and testicular development. Dynamic alterations in the testicular autophagy of prepubertal mice were analyzed, and the relationship between autophagy levels and testicular development was clarified using C57BL\/6 mice aged 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks. Transmission electron microscopy was used to identify autophagic vacuoles. The expression of autophagy-related proteins and PI3K\/AKT\/mTOR signaling pathway-related proteins was determined using Western blotting. Localization of microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) and sequestosome 1 (p62) in testicular tissues was determined using immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry. Autophagic vacuoles in spermatogenic cells increased gradually from weeks 1 to 4, peaked at 2 weeks, decreased sharply at 6 weeks, and were undetectable at 8 weeks. The expression of Beclin 1 autophagy-related protein, LC3-II, and p62 was highest at 2 weeks among the five age groups, whereas LC3-II and p62 were mainly localized in spermatogonia and spermatocytes. Moreover, low mTOR expression and its increased expression were detected at 1\u20132 weeks and 2\u20138 weeks, respectively. These results show that testicular autophagic levels exhibit a dynamic pattern of \u201cincrease (1\u20132 weeks) followed by a decrease (2\u20138 weeks),\u201d providing a reference in determining the relationship between autophagy levels and testicular development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jdb13040042","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T12:33:04Z","timestamp":1763469184000},"page":"42","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Dynamic Alterations in Testicular Autophagy in Prepubertal Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4463-0575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2703-0036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoyun","family":"Pang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhenxing","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weitao","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2056-3045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zihao","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jincheng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanyan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiahao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6078-1857","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chen","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2970-6344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongwei","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1383-3565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianghong","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2136-9814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuxuan","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-012-4411-y","article-title":"Transcriptome profiling of the developing postnatal mouse testis using next-generation sequencing","volume":"56","author":"Gong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. China Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.89480","article-title":"Towards a \u201cTestis in a Dish\u201d: Generation of Mouse Testicular Organoids that Recapitulate Testis Structure and Expression Profiles","volume":"20","author":"Stopel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2019.12.005","article-title":"The Dynamic Transcriptional Cell Atlas of Testis Development during Human Puberty","volume":"26","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-023-06154-8","article-title":"Autophagy: Regulator of cell death","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/path.2697","article-title":"Autophagy: Cellular and molecular mechanisms","volume":"221","author":"Glick","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00008.2018","article-title":"Impaired Autophagy in Motor Neurons: A Final Common Mechanism of Injury and Death","volume":"33","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1111\/andr.13746","article-title":"Trehalose attenuates testicular aging by activating autophagy and improving mitochondrial quality","volume":"13","author":"Xi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Andrology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98677","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.22088","article-title":"Levels of Leydig cell autophagy regulate the fertility of male naked mole-rats","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmab043","article-title":"Autophagy: A multifaceted player in the fate of sperm","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2021.102227","article-title":"Induction of autophagy via the ROS-dependent AMPK-mTOR pathway protects copper-induced spermatogenesis disorder","volume":"49","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fmre.2022.10.006","article-title":"Autophagy mediated tubulobulbar complex components degradation is required for spermiation","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fundam. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, Q., Zhang, Y., Wang, Q., and Yuan, L. (2022). Autophagy: A Double-Edged Sword in Male Reproduction. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232315273"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, C., Wang, X., Guo, Y., and Yuan, S. (2020). Role of Selective Autophagy in Spermatogenesis and Male Fertility. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9112523"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2022.120434","article-title":"Vitamin E rescues valproic acid-induced testicular injury in rats: Role of autophagy","volume":"296","author":"Alsemeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118598","article-title":"Exposure to tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) phosphate during adolescence induces testicular toxicity in mice: Autophagy-apoptosis interplay","volume":"302","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-022-05116-w","article-title":"Germline FOXJ2 overexpression causes male infertility via aberrant autophagy activation by LAMP2A upregulation","volume":"13","author":"Bai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirat, D., Alahwany, A.M., Arisha, A.H., Abdelkhalek, A., and Miyasho, T. (2023). Role of Macroautophagy in Mammalian Male Reproductive Physiology. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12091322"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Wang, Y., Zhou, C., Mei, W., and Zeng, C. (2022). PI3K\/Akt\/mTOR Pathway and Its Role in Cancer Therapeutics: Are We Making Headway?. Front. Oncol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2022.819128"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-019-10257-8","article-title":"Targeting PI3K\/AKT\/mTOR-mediated autophagy for tumor therapy","volume":"104","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koustas, E., Trifylli, E.M., Sarantis, P., Kontolatis, N.I., Damaskos, C., Garmpis, N., Vallilas, C., Garmpi, A., Papavassiliou, A.G., and Karamouzis, M.V. (2021). The Implication of Autophagy in Gastric Cancer Progression. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11121304"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"hoae20","DOI":"10.1093\/hropen\/hoae020","article-title":"Effects of Tcte1 knockout on energy chain transportation and spermatogenesis: Implications for male infertility","volume":"2024","author":"Olszewska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Open"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1404","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deae107","article-title":"Monocytes expressing activin A and CCR2 exacerbate chronic testicular inflammation by promoting immune cell infiltration","volume":"39","author":"Hasan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-022-00687-2","article-title":"Sertoli cell and spermatogonial development in pigs","volume":"13","author":"Zheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"hoaf26","DOI":"10.1093\/hropen\/hoaf026","article-title":"Effect of pubertal induction with combined gonadotropin therapy on testes development and spermatogenesis in males with gonadotropin deficiency: A cohort study","volume":"2025","author":"Castro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Open"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-022-00678-3","article-title":"Associations between testicular development and fetal size in the pig","volume":"13","author":"Stenhouse","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.129498","article-title":"Application of photocrosslinked gelatin, alginate and dextran hydrogels in the in vitro culture of testicular tissue","volume":"260","author":"Tan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137033","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.137033","article-title":"Chronic exposure to liquid crystal monomer EBCN at environmentally relevant concentrations induces testicular dysfunction via the gut-testis axis","volume":"486","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2024.156245","article-title":"Ginkgo biloba extract alleviates deltamethrin-induced testicular injury by upregulating SKP2 and inhibiting Beclin1-independent autophagy","volume":"135","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamaludin, N., Ibrahim, S.F., Jaffar, F., Zulkefli, A.F., and Osman, K. (2025). The Influence of 2.45 GHz Wi-Fi Exposure Duration on Sperm Quality and Testicular Histopathology: An Exploration of Peroxidative Injury. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14020179"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47571","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-19143-9","article-title":"Biochemical and histopathological investigation of the protective effects of melatonin and vitamin E against the damage caused by acetamiprid in Balb-c mouse testicles at light and electron microscopic level","volume":"29","author":"Zayman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2021.112326","article-title":"Stereological analysis and transcriptome profiling of testicular injury induced by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in prepubertal rats","volume":"220","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2021.1909836","article-title":"SPATA33 functions as a mitophagy receptor in mammalian germline","volume":"17","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-020-00638-2","article-title":"SPATA33 is an autophagy mediator for cargo selectivity in germline mitophagy","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb0910-814","article-title":"Eaten alive: A history of macroautophagy","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2020.1783822","article-title":"Autophagy core protein ATG5 is required for elongating spermatid development, sperm individualization and normal fertility in male mice","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2024.112483","article-title":"Autophagy markers LC3 and p62 in aging lumbar motor neurons","volume":"194","author":"Jahanian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, B.H., Jeziorek, M., Kanal, H.D., Contu, V.R., Dobrowolski, R., and Levison, S.W. (2021). Moderately Inducing Autophagy Reduces Tertiary Brain Injury after Perinatal Hypoxia-Ischemia. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10040898"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1186\/s13020-023-00859-w","article-title":"Salvianolic acid B promotes angiogenesis and inhibits cardiomyocyte apoptosis by regulating autophagy in myocardial ischemia","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Soler, R.I., Nikouee, A., Kim, M., Khan, S., Sivaraman, L., Ding, X., and Zang, Q.S. (2023). Beclin-1 dependent autophagy improves renal outcomes following Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction (UUO) injury. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1104652"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101064","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-29548-9","article-title":"A new insight of cadmium-induced cellular evidence of autophagic-associated spermiophagy during spermatogenesis","volume":"30","author":"Ali","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2025.07.019","article-title":"Autophagy activated by the AMPK\/mTOR\/ULK1 pathway involves AURKB-mediated microgliosis in neuropathic pain","volume":"129","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1890","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO03405G","article-title":"Large-leaf yellow tea attenuates high glucose-induced vascular endothelial cell injury by up-regulating autophagy and down-regulating oxidative stress","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3468(92)90388-N","article-title":"Intrascrotal CGRP 8-37 causes a delay in testicular descent in mice","volume":"27","author":"Samarakkody","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-98-6-1523","article-title":"Effect of sexual maturation and androgens on prostaglandin levels in tissues of the male reproductive system in mice","volume":"98","author":"Badr","year":"1976","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2413375","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202413375","article-title":"Role of Testosterone Signaling in Microglia: A Potential Role for Sex-Related Differences in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"12","author":"Du","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.170701","article-title":"METTL3-m6A-SIRT1 axis affects autophagic flux contributing to PM(2.5)-induced inhibition of testosterone production in Leydig cells","volume":"918","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Sun, Y., Luo, M., He, N., Wen, Z., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhao, J., and Liu, Y. (2025). Prostaglandins: Key players in immunomodulation of the nervous system. Neural Regen. Res., 10-4103.","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-25-00089"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y.K., Zhu, P., Wang, W.S., and Sun, K. (2022). Serum amyloid A, a host-derived DAMP in pregnancy?. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.978929"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.03.017","article-title":"mTOR signaling in growth control and disease","volume":"149","author":"Laplante","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.4c10190","article-title":"Sex-Specific Mechanisms of Fluoride-Induced Gonadal Injury: A Multi-Omics Investigation into Reproductive Toxicity and Gut Microbiota Disruption","volume":"73","author":"Ommati","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gendis.2021.03.006","article-title":"Retinoic acid can improve autophagy through depression of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway via RARalpha to restore spermatogenesis in cryptorchid infertile rats","volume":"9","author":"Long","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genes Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Liu, Y., Wang, D., Xu, Y., Dong, R., Yang, Y., Lv, Q., Chen, X., and Zhang, Z. (2019). The Upstream Pathway of mTOR-Mediated Autophagy in Liver Diseases. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8121597"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.02.004","article-title":"mTOR Signaling in Growth, Metabolism, and Disease","volume":"168","author":"Saxton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9911537","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9911537","article-title":"Artemisinin Inhibits the Migration and Invasion in Uveal Melanoma via Inhibition of the PI3K\/AKT\/mTOR Signaling Pathway","volume":"2021","author":"Farhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-021-03391-7","article-title":"Survival of salivary gland cancer stem cells requires mTOR signaling","volume":"12","author":"Andrade","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5048375","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5048375","article-title":"Selenium and Taurine Combination Is Better Than Alone in Protecting Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Mammary Inflammatory Lesions via Activating PI3K\/Akt\/mTOR Signaling Pathway by Scavenging Intracellular ROS","volume":"2021","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2348","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.123.318818","article-title":"Aggf1 Specifies Hemangioblasts at the Top of Regulatory Hierarchy via Npas4l and mTOR-S6K-Emp2-ERK Signaling","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8994901","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/8994901","article-title":"LINC01278 Induces Autophagy to Inhibit Tumour Progression by Suppressing the mTOR Signalling Pathway","volume":"2023","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, J., Chen, D., Yu, B., He, J., Yu, J., Mao, X., Luo, Y., Zheng, P., and Luo, J. (2021). L-Leucine Promotes STAT1 and ISGs Expression in TGEV-Infected IPEC-J2 Cells via mTOR Activation. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.656573"}],"container-title":["Journal of Developmental Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2221-3759\/13\/4\/42\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T05:30:34Z","timestamp":1763616634000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2221-3759\/13\/4\/42"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jdb13040042"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jdb13040042","relation":{},"ISSN":["2221-3759"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2221-3759","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]}}}