{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T04:50:23Z","timestamp":1785905423549,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010967","name":"SUNY Oswego","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010967","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01597g643","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Dev. Biol.","JDB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Warfarin is a coumarin-derived oral anticoagulant widely used for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic disorders, particularly in patients with mechanical heart valves. The drug exerts its anticoagulant effect by inhibiting vitamin K epoxide reductase, thereby impairing \u03b3-carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Despite its clinical efficacy, warfarin therapy is associated with a narrow therapeutic index, substantial interindividual variability in dose response, numerous drug interactions, and significant hemorrhagic risk. Maternal warfarin therapy during pregnancy is strongly associated with fetal warfarin syndrome (FWS), a characteristic pattern of embryopathy resulting from in utero exposure to the drug. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the physicochemical properties, pharmacological mechanisms, dose variability, toxicity, and developmental effects associated with warfarin exposure. Evidence from human clinical studies and vertebrate animal models is discussed to elucidate conserved developmental and molecular mechanisms underlying warfarin teratogenicity. The review also examines the signaling pathways disrupted by warfarin exposure, highlighting that its teratogenic effects extend beyond anticoagulation to the disruption of vitamin K-dependent developmental signaling. Inhibition of \u03b3-glutamyl carboxylation, together with alterations in Gas6\/TAM, PXR, Ras, and Wnt\/\u03b2-catenin signaling pathways, impairs skeletal, vascular, and neural development, contributing to the characteristic abnormalities of fetal warfarin syndrome. Collectively, this review integrates clinical, molecular, and experimental findings to provide a comprehensive understanding of warfarin-induced developmental toxicity. Current knowledge is insufficient to fully elucidate the complex mechanisms underlying warfarin-induced embryopathy and fetal toxicity. Further investigations are warranted to identify safer anticoagulant regimens during pregnancy and to inform the development of novel therapeutic strategies that minimize fetal risk while maintaining maternal anticoagulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jdb14030034","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T08:04:59Z","timestamp":1785744299000},"page":"34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Warfarin-Induced Developmental Toxicity: Insights into Embryogenesis, Teratogenicity, and Molecular Pathways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Evelyn","family":"Magee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York Oswego, Oswego, NY 13126, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grace","family":"Kuhnel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York Oswego, Oswego, NY 13126, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5319-4959","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Poongodi","family":"Geetha-Loganathan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York Oswego, Oswego, NY 13126, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026, May 30). 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