{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T17:17:10Z","timestamp":1782926230736,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]],"date-time":"2025-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759363200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Robert Leitl Trust and School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["JEMR"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Purpose: To investigate the efficacy of a novel test for diagnosing colour vision deficiencies using reflexive eye movements measured using an unmodified tablet. Methods: This study followed a cross-sectional design, where thirty-three participants aged between 17 and 65 years were recruited. The participant group comprised 23 controls, 8 deuteranopes, and 2 protanopes. An anomaloscope was employed to determine the colour vision status of these participants. The study methodology involved using an Apple iPad Pro\u2019s built-in eye-tracking capabilities to record eye movements in response to coloured patterns drifting on the screen. Through an automated analysis of these movements, the researchers estimated individuals\u2019 red\u2013green equiluminant point and their equivalent luminance contrast. Results: Estimates of the red\u2013green equiluminant point and the equivalent luminance contrast were used to classify participants\u2019 colour vision status with a sensitivity rate of 90.0% and a specificity rate of 91.30%. Conclusions: The novel colour vision test administered using an unmodified tablet was found to be effective in diagnosing colour vision deficiencies and has the potential to be a practical and cost-effective alternative to traditional methods. Translation Relevance: The test\u2019s objectivity, its straightforward implementation on a standard tablet, and its minimal requirement for patient cooperation, all contribute to the wider accessibility of colour vision diagnosis. This is particularly advantageous for demographics like children who might be challenging to engage, but for whom early detection is of paramount importance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jemr18050051","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]],"date-time":"2025-10-02T08:20:28Z","timestamp":1759393228000},"page":"51","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Diagnosing Colour Vision Deficiencies Using Eye Movements (Without Dedicated Eye-Tracking Hardware)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Aryaman","family":"Taore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry & Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriel","family":"Lobo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry & Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9892-2964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip R. K.","family":"Turnbull","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry & Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven C.","family":"Dakin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry & Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London EC1V 9EL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nu\u00f1ez, J.R., Anderton, C.R., and Renslow, R.S. (2018). Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0199239"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2009.251","article-title":"Colour vision deficiency","volume":"24","author":"Simunovic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-198905000-00006","article-title":"What do color vision defectives say about everyday tasks?","volume":"66","author":"Steward","year":"1989","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci. Off. Publ. Am. Acad. Optom."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.36.000086","article-title":"The Effect of Quality of Illumination on the Results of the Ishihara Test","volume":"36","author":"Hardy","year":"1946","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2004). Comparison of the Neitz Test of Color Vision to the Ishihara Color Vision tests and the anomaloscopic classification. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 45, 1384."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-194706000-00009","article-title":"Researches on normal and defective color vision","volume":"24","author":"Wright","year":"1947","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taore, A., Lobo, G., Turnbull, P.R., and Dakin, S.C. (2022). Diagnosis of colour vision deficits using eye movements. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-11152-5"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(91)90169-6","article-title":"The contribution of color to motion in normal and color-deficient observers","volume":"31","author":"Cavanagh","year":"1991","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(1984). Screening for color blindness using optokinetic nystagmus. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 25, 463."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.3109\/00016487909137147","article-title":"The Significance of the Target Frequency and the Target Speed in Optokinetic Nystagmus (Okn)","volume":"88","author":"Peitersen","year":"1979","journal-title":"Acta Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-005-2289-7","article-title":"An fMRI study of optokinetic nystagmus and smooth-pursuit eye movements in humans","volume":"165","author":"Konen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-vision-100119-125043","article-title":"Functional organization of extraocular motoneurons and eye muscles","volume":"7","author":"Horn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/49.3.333","article-title":"Optic nystagmus and its value in the localization of cerebral lesions","volume":"49","author":"Fox","year":"1926","journal-title":"Brain J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2005). Color vision tests for aviation: Comparison of the anomaloscope and three lantern types. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 76, 421."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"What\u2019s new in Psychtoolbox-3?","volume":"36","author":"Kleiner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dakin, S.C., and Turnbull, P.R.K. (2016). Similar contrast sensitivity functions measured using psychophysics and optokinetic nystagmus. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34514"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"21","article-title":"Review of K-means clustering algorithm","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electron. Des. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreland, J. (1972). Peripheral colour vision. Visual Psychophysics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-88658-4_20"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2021.08.200","article-title":"OkenReader: ML-based classification of the reading patterns using an Apple iPad","volume":"192","author":"Anisimov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, O (2020). Accuracy Assessment of ARKit 2 Based Gaze Estimation. Hum. Comput. Interact., 12181, 439\u2013449.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49059-1_32"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-018-4154-y","article-title":"New iPAD-based test for the detection of color vision deficiencies","volume":"256","author":"Luque","year":"2018","journal-title":"Graefe\u2019s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."}],"container-title":["Journal of Eye Movement Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1995-8692\/18\/5\/51\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]],"date-time":"2025-10-02T09:08:11Z","timestamp":1759396091000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1995-8692\/18\/5\/51"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["jemr18050051"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jemr18050051","relation":{},"ISSN":["1995-8692"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1995-8692","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]]}}}