{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T18:45:18Z","timestamp":1769625918873,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001505","name":"Health Research Council of New Zealand","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HRC 21\/514"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HRC 21\/514"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001505","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"InnoHK"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100017649","name":"Hong Kong Government","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100017649","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JEMR"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) is an involuntary sawtooth eye movement that occurs in the presence of a drifting stimulus. Our experience is that low-amplitude\/short-duration OKN can challenge the limits of our commercially available Pupil Neon eye-tracker, leading to false negative OKN detection results. We sought to investigate whether such instances could be remediated. We compared automated OKN detection using: (1) the gaze signal from the Pupil Neon (OKN-G), (2) centroid tracking (OKN-C), and (3) an image-phase-based \u201cmotion microscopy\u201d technique (OKN-MMIC). The OKN-C and OKN-MMIC methods were also tested as a remediated step after a negative OKN-G result (OKN-C-STEP, OKN-MMIC-STEP). To validate the approaches adults (n = 22) with normal visual acuity was measured whilst viewing trials of an OKN induction stimulus shown at four levels of visibility. Confusion matrices and performance measures were determined for a \u201cmain\u201d dataset that included all methods, and a \u201cretest\u201d set, which contained instances where centroid tracking failed. For the main set, all tested methods improved upon OKN-G by Matthew\u2019s correlation coefficient (0.80\u20130.85 vs. 0.76), sensitivity (0.89\u20130.95 vs. 0.85), and accuracy (0.91\u20130.93 vs. 0.88); but only OKN-C yielded better specificity (0.90\u20130.96 vs. 0.95). For the retest set, MMIC and MMIC-STEP methods consistently improved upon the performance of OKN-G across all measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jemr19010012","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T10:24:36Z","timestamp":1769423076000},"page":"12","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Comparison of Centroid Tracking and Image Phase for Improved Optokinetic Nystagmus Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Jason","family":"Turuwhenua","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4539-8417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Norouzifard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zaw","family":"LinTun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Misty","family":"Edmonds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Iwi United Engaged Ltd., Drury 2579, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Findlay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joanna","family":"Black","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3902-2712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"},{"name":"Centre for Eye and Vision Research, 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong"},{"name":"Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynders, M., Van der Sypt, L., Bos, J., Cools, W., and Topsakal, V. 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