{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T03:15:51Z","timestamp":1791947751528,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]],"date-time":"2024-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729814400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) present significant treatment challenges. These infections often require systemic antibiotics such as vancomycin, which poses a risk for increased bacterial resistance. Topical treatments are hindered by the barrier function of the skin, and microneedles (MNs) offer a promising solution, increasing patient compliance and negating the need for traditional needles. Methods: This study focused on the use of sodium alginate MNs for vancomycin delivery directly to the site of infection via a cost-effective micromolding technique. Dissolving polymeric MNs made of sodium alginate and loaded with vancomycin were fabricated and evaluated in terms of their physical properties, delivery ability, and antimicrobial activity. Results: The MNs achieved a 378 \u03bcm depth of insertion into ex vivo skin and a 5.0 \u00b1 0 mm zone of inhibition in agar disc diffusion assays. Furthermore, in ex vivo Franz cell experiments, the MNs delivered 34.46 \u00b1 11.31 \u03bcg of vancomycin with around 35% efficiency, with 9.88 \u00b1 0.57 \u03bcg deposited in the skin after 24 h. Conclusions: These findings suggest that sodium alginate MNs are a viable platform for antimicrobial agent delivery in SSTIs. Future in vivo studies are essential to confirm the safety and effectiveness of this innovative method for clinical use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb15110316","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]],"date-time":"2024-10-25T07:51:29Z","timestamp":1729842689000},"page":"316","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Sodium Alginate Microneedles Loaded with Vancomycin for Skin Infections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Juhaina M.","family":"Abu Ershaid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK"},{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Department of Applied Pharmaceutical Sciences and Clinical Pharmacy, Isra University, Amman 11622, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"May","family":"Tayyem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetics, Middle East University, Airport Road, Amman 11831, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akmal H.","family":"Sabri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK"},{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0766-4147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan F.","family":"Donnelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8106-9066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lalitkumar K.","family":"Vora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nandhini, P., Kumar, P., Mickymaray, S., Alothaim, A.S., Somasundaram, J., and Rajan, M. (2022). Recent Developments in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Treatment: A Review. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11050606"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612829666230410095155","article-title":"Emerging strategies to combat methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Natural agents with high potential","volume":"29","author":"Ueda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2016.11.007","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus from the German general population is highly diverse","volume":"307","author":"Becker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/jan.15822","article-title":"Identifying infection in chronic wounds in a community setting: A systematic review of diagnostic test accuracy studies","volume":"80","author":"Edwards","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beshiru, A., Isichei-Ukah, B.O., Uwhuba, K.E., Igere, B.E., and Igbinosa, E.O. (2024). Prevalence, characterization, and implications of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in ready-to-eat foods from Delta, Nigeria: A concern for consumer safety. Sustain. Microbiol., 1.","DOI":"10.1093\/sumbio\/qvae007"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"217","article-title":"Preventing drug-resistant infections in health care","volume":"80","author":"Furlow","year":"2009","journal-title":"Radiol. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"10","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of bacteriology, clinical diseases, epidemiology, antibiotic resistance and therapeutic approach","volume":"4","author":"Gnanamani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Staphylococcus Aureus"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1177\/003335490812300104","article-title":"A model for surveillance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"123","author":"Simons","year":"2008","journal-title":"Public Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2016.48.4.267","article-title":"Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia","volume":"48","author":"Choo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3255","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S272733","article-title":"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspective Approach to the Bacterium Epidemiology, Virulence Factors, Antibiotic-Resistance, and Zoonotic Impact","volume":"13","author":"Algammal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"20499361211005965","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of vancomycin loading doses in critically ill patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection","volume":"8","author":"Flannery","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcm.2011.12.001","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: An overview for manual therapists","volume":"11","author":"Green","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Chiropr. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.biophys.29.1.265","article-title":"The structural biology of molecular recognition by vancomycin","volume":"29","author":"Loll","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120663","article-title":"Transdermal delivery of vancomycin hydrochloride: Influence of chemical and physical permeation enhancers","volume":"602","author":"Datta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofad258","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofad258","article-title":"Clindamycin Plus Vancomycin Versus Linezolid for Treatment of Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infection","volume":"10","author":"Dorazio","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu Ershaid, J.M., Vora, L.K., Volpe-Zanutto, F., Sabri, A.H., Peng, K., Anjani, Q.K., McKenna, P.E., Ripolin, A., Larra\u00f1eta, E., and McCarthy, H.O. (2023). Microneedle array patches for sustained delivery of fluphenazine: A micron scale approach for the management of schizophrenia. Biomater. Adv., 153.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2023.213526"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-01107-0","article-title":"Nanoemulsion-based dissolving microneedle arrays for enhanced intradermal and transdermal delivery","volume":"12","author":"Nasiri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1592\/phco.29.11.1275","article-title":"Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin in adults: Summary of consensus recommendations from the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists","volume":"29","author":"Rybak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharmacother. J. Hum. Pharmacol. Drug Ther."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2022.104158","article-title":"Biodegradable microneedle fabricated from sodium alginate-gelatin for transdermal delivery of clindamycin","volume":"32","author":"Tiraton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demir, Y.K., Akan, Z., and Kerimoglu, O. (2013). Sodium alginate microneedle arrays mediate the transdermal delivery of bovine serum albumin. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063819"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2024.134777","article-title":"Dual cross-linking mechanism of sodium alginate composite hydrogel for adhesive microneedle patch preparation","volume":"700","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2023.02.031","article-title":"Hydrogel-forming microarray patch mediated transdermal delivery of tetracycline hydrochloride","volume":"356","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1080\/1061186X.2019.1693577","article-title":"Engineering and characterisation of BCG-loaded polymeric microneedles","volume":"28","author":"Arshad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Drug Target."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2014.05.042","article-title":"A proposed model membrane and test method for microneedle insertion studies","volume":"472","author":"Moore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganeson, K., Alias, A.H., Murugaiyah, V., Amirul, A.-A.A., Ramakrishna, S., and Vigneswari, S. (2023). Microneedles for efficient and precise drug delivery in cancer therapy. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15030744"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramadon, D., Courtenay, A.J., Permana, A.D., Tekko, I.A., McAlister, E., McCrudden, M.T., McCarthy, H.O., and Donnelly, R.F. (2020). A sensitive HPLC-UV method for quantifying vancomycin in biological matrices: Application to pharmacokinetic and biodistribution studies in rat plasma, skin and lymph nodes. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 189.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2020.113429"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-020-02887-9","article-title":"Two-photon polymerisation 3D printing of microneedle array templates with versatile designs: Application in the development of polymeric drug delivery systems","volume":"37","author":"Cordeiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (1999). Methods for Determining Bactericidal Activity of Antimicrobial Agents, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Approved Guideline."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2021.10.001","article-title":"Dissolving microneedle patches loaded with amphotericin B microparticles for localised and sustained intradermal delivery: Potential for enhanced treatment of cutaneous fungal infections","volume":"339","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiederhold, N.P. (2023). Antifungal Susceptibility of Yeasts and Filamentous Fungi by CLSI Broth Microdilution Testing. Antifungal Drug Resistance: Methods and Protocols, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-3155-3_1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.2c01270","article-title":"Highly prolonged release of the cancer vaccine and immunomodulator via a two-layer biodegradable microneedle for prophylactic treatment of metastatic cancer","volume":"24","author":"Duong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005792","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202005792","article-title":"Microarray patches: Poking a hole in the challenges faced when delivering poorly soluble drugs","volume":"31","author":"Paredes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dawud, H., and Abu Ammar, A. (2023). Rapidly dissolving microneedles for the delivery of steroid-loaded nanoparticles intended for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15020526"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2017.10.005","article-title":"Novel bilayer dissolving microneedle arrays with concentrated PLGA nano-microparticles for targeted intradermal delivery: Proof of concept","volume":"265","author":"Vora","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2022.12.007","article-title":"Recent approaches for enhancing the performance of dissolving microneedles in drug delivery applications","volume":"63","author":"Fontana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1080\/01932691.2019.1611437","article-title":"Interactions between gelatin and sodium alginate: UV and FTIR studies","volume":"41","author":"Derkach","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dispers. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1","article-title":"Characterization of sodium alginate based films","volume":"65","author":"Badita","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rom. J. Phys"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2004.08.036","article-title":"Characterization of poly (vinyl alcohol)\/poly (ethylene glycol) hydrogels and PVA-derived hybrids by small-angle X-ray scattering and FTIR spectroscopy","volume":"45","author":"Mansur","year":"2004","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/s10812-012-9634-y","article-title":"Determination of the degree of crystallinity of poly (vinyl alcohol) by FTIR spectroscopy","volume":"79","author":"Tretinnikov","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2018.12.043","article-title":"Synergetic effect of vancomycin loaded silver nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial activity","volume":"176","author":"Kaur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5607","DOI":"10.1007\/s00289-022-04237-8","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of vancomycin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles for drug delivery","volume":"80","author":"Hafizi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Polym. Bull."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2021.03.036","article-title":"Artemether and lumefantrine dissolving microneedle patches with improved pharmacokinetic performance and antimalarial efficacy in mice infected with Plasmodium yoelii","volume":"333","author":"Ferreira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3353","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00431","article-title":"Development, evaluation, and pharmacokinetic assessment of polymeric microarray patches for transdermal delivery of vancomycin hydrochloride","volume":"17","author":"Ramadon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001307","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202001307","article-title":"Vancomycin-Loaded Microneedle Arrays against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Skin Infections","volume":"6","author":"Ziesmer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deepa, B., Abraham, E., Pothan, L.A., Cordeiro, N., Faria, M., and Thomas, S. (2016). Biodegradable nanocomposite films based on sodium alginate and cellulose nanofibrils. Materials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma9010050"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foster, T.J. (2020). Surface proteins of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01829"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2836","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI68834","article-title":"Mechanisms of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"124","author":"Gardete","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2023.123292","article-title":"Fabrication and characterisation of poly (sulfonated) and poly (sulfonic acid) dissolving microneedles for delivery of antibiotic and antifungal agents","volume":"644","author":"Sabri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Biomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/15\/11\/316\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:20:20Z","timestamp":1760113220000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/15\/11\/316"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["jfb15110316"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfb15110316","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4983"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4983","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]]}}}