{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T22:08:12Z","timestamp":1790892492422,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]],"date-time":"2025-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736812800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["NRF-2019R1A5A8080290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2019R1A5A8080290"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune diseases present complex therapeutic challenges due to their chronic nature, systemic impact, and requirement for precise immunomodulation to avoid adverse side effects. Recent advancements in biodegradable and stimuli-responsive nanomaterials have opened new avenues for targeted drug delivery systems capable of addressing these challenges. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of state-of-the-art biodegradable nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, and hydrogels engineered for targeted delivery in autoimmune therapies. These nanomaterials are designed to degrade safely in the body while releasing therapeutic agents in response to specific stimuli, including pH, temperature, redox conditions, and enzymatic activity. By achieving localized and controlled release of anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents, these systems minimize systemic toxicity and enhance therapeutic efficacy. We discuss the underlying mechanisms of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, recent applications in treating diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease, and the design considerations essential for clinical translation. Additionally, we address current challenges, including biocompatibility, scalability, and regulatory hurdles, as well as future directions for integrating advanced nanotechnology with personalized medicine in autoimmune treatment. This review highlights the transformative potential of biodegradable and stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, presenting them as a promising strategy to advance precision medicine and improve patient outcomes in autoimmune disease management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb16010024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]],"date-time":"2025-01-14T06:13:07Z","timestamp":1736835187000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":95,"title":["Biodegradable and Stimuli-Responsive Nanomaterials for Targeted Drug Delivery in Autoimmune Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1209-1507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nargish","family":"Parvin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, School of Basic Science, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9102-4224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sang Woo","family":"Joo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, School of Basic Science, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2615-8618","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tapas K.","family":"Mandal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, School of Basic Science, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nautiyal, G., Sharma, I., Pandey, P., and Sharma, S.K. (2024). Autoimmune Diseases: Recent Insights on Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Prevalence Rate. Artificial Intelligence and Autoimmune Diseases: Applications in the Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapeutics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-9029-0_2"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, S., Kaushik, D., and Sharma, S.K. (2024). Autoimmune Disorders: Types, Symptoms, and Risk Factors. Artificial Intelligence and Autoimmune Diseases: Applications in the Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapeutics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-9029-0_1"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yasmeen, F., Pirzada, R.H., Ahmad, B., Choi, B., and Choi, S. (2024). Understanding Autoimmunity: Mechanisms, Predisposing Factors, and Cytokine Therapies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25147666"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.7","article-title":"Dysbiosis and the Immune System","volume":"17","author":"Levy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s13105-012-0216-5","article-title":"Inflammation and Rheumatoid Arthritis","volume":"69","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ananthakrishnan, A.N., and Xavier, R.J. (2020). Gastrointestinal Diseases. Hunter\u2019s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-55512-8.00003-X"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"106","article-title":"Systemic Treatment-Induced Gastrointestinal Toxicity: Incidence, Clinical Presentation and Management","volume":"25","author":"Boussios","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7906","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2010.3617","article-title":"Nanomedicine\u2013Nanoscale Drugs and Delivery Systems","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Placha, D., and Jampilek, J. (2021). Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, Anti-Inflammatory Agents and Their Delivery Nanosystems. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13010064"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtchem.2024.102178","article-title":"\u201cSmart\u201d Stimuli-Responsive Biomaterials Revolutionizing the Theranostic Landscape of Inflammatory Arthritis","volume":"39","author":"Nag","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Today Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100110","DOI":"10.1002\/ppsc.202100110","article-title":"PH-Responsive Biocompatible Fluorescent Core-Shell Nanogel for Intracellular Imaging and Control Drug Release","volume":"38","author":"Mandal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Part. Part. Syst. Charact."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1007\/s10876-020-01938-w","article-title":"Highly Fluorescent Doped Fe3O4@C Nanoparticles Cross the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier: Help in Brain Imaging and Blocking the Life Cycle of Mosquitoes","volume":"32","author":"Parvin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, S.H., Choi, Y., and Choi, J. (2020). Stimuli-Responsive Nanomaterials for Application in Antitumor Therapy and Drug Delivery. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12070630"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, S.S., Bharadwaj, P., Bilal, M., Barani, M., Rahdar, A., Taboada, P., Bungau, S., and Kyzas, G.Z. (2020). Stimuli-Responsive Polymeric Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery, Imaging, and Theragnosis. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12061397"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kondo, N., Kuroda, T., and Kobayashi, D. (2021). Cytokine Networks in the Pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222010922"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1454","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1454","article-title":"The Interaction between Epstein\u2013Barr Virus and Multiple Sclerosis Genetic Risk Loci: Insights into Disease Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Opportunities","volume":"12","author":"Afrasiabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"otad055","DOI":"10.1093\/crocol\/otad055","article-title":"Abdominal Pain in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: An Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Review","volume":"5","author":"Coates","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crohn\u2019s Colitis 360"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2021.153712","article-title":"Cascade of Immune Mechanism and Consequences of Inflammatory Disorders","volume":"91","author":"Megha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.03.007","article-title":"Challenges, Progress, and Prospects of Developing Therapies to Treat Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"181","author":"Fugger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1210\/endrev\/bnad016","article-title":"Treating the Side Effects of Exogenous Glucocorticoids; Can We Separate the Good From the Bad?","volume":"44","author":"Pofi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fenton, K.A., and Pedersen, H.L. (2023). Advanced Methods and Novel Biomarkers in Autoimmune Diseases\u2014A Review of the Recent Years Progress in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Front. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1183535"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3502","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb46040220","article-title":"Inflammasome Molecular Insights in Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"46","author":"Bild","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.2174\/1573413719666230413084140","article-title":"Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Cervical Cancer: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"20","author":"Singhai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Nanosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3702518","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/3702518","article-title":"Smart Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Application: Development of Versatile Nanocarrier Platforms in Biotechnology and Nanomedicine","volume":"2019","author":"Lombardo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"233","article-title":"An Overview of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: Properties and Applications","volume":"46","author":"Hsu","year":"2023","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Begines, B., Ortiz, T., P\u00e9rez-Aranda, M., Mart\u00ednez, G., Merinero, M., Arg\u00fcelles-Arias, F., and Alcudia, A. (2020). Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery: Recent Developments and Future Prospects. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10071403"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, P., Chen, G., and Zhang, J. (2022). A Review of Liposomes as a Drug Delivery System: Current Status of Approved Products, Regulatory Environments, and Future Perspectives. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27041372"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01745-z","article-title":"Nanotechnology\u2019s Frontier in Combatting Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases: Prevention and Treatment","volume":"9","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2021.03.013","article-title":"Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis: State of Art and Potential Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1186\/s11671-024-04135-0","article-title":"Nano-Based Approaches for the Treatment of Neuro-Immunological Disorders: A Special Emphasis on Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"19","author":"Panghal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Nano"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barani, M., Rahdar, A., Sargazi, S., Amiri, M.S., Sharma, P.K., and Bhalla, N. (2021). Nanotechnology for Inflammatory Bowel Disease Management: Detection, Imaging and Treatment. Sens. Bio-Sens. Res., 32.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbsr.2021.100417"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2014.12.003","article-title":"Therapeutic Applications of Nanomedicine in Autoimmune Diseases: From Immunosuppression to Tolerance Induction","volume":"11","author":"Gharagozloo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s40005-022-00573-z","article-title":"Smart PH-Responsive Nanomedicines for Disease Therapy","volume":"52","author":"Shinn","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Investig."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sivadasan, D., Sultan, M.H., Madkhali, O., Almoshari, Y., and Thangavel, N. (2021). Polymeric Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles (PLNs) as Emerging Drug Delivery Platform\u2014A Comprehensive Review of Their Properties, Preparation Methods, and Therapeutic Applications. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13081291"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas, R.G., Surendran, S.P., and Jeong, Y.Y. (2020). Tumor Microenvironment-Stimuli Responsive Nanoparticles for Anticancer Therapy. Front. Mol. Biosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2020.610533"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300157","DOI":"10.1002\/macp.202300157","article-title":"Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-Based Polymers: Recent Overview for the Development of Temperature-Responsive Drug Delivery and Biomedical Applications","volume":"224","author":"Shaibie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Macromol. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S471734","article-title":"Research Progress of Disulfide Bond Based Tumor Microenvironment Targeted Drug Delivery System","volume":"19","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, S., Xu, Y., Dong, X., Mu, Q., Chen, X., Yu, Y., and Su, G. (2024). Nanotechnology-Empowered Combination Therapy for Rheumatoid Arthritis: Principles, Strategies, and Challenges. J. Nanobiotechnol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02670-7"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Zhao, G., Su, W.-K., and Shuai, Q. (2020). Enzyme-Responsive Nanoparticles for Anti-Tumor Drug Delivery. Front. Chem., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.00647"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f4bo, G.C.N.B., Paiva, K.L.R., Silva, A.L.G., Sim\u00f5es, M.M., Radicchi, M.A., and B\u00e1o, S.N. (2021). Nanocarriers Used in Drug Delivery to Enhance Immune System in Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13081167"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Dong, X., and Chen, X. (2022). Polymer-Modified Liposomes for Drug Delivery: From Fundamentals to Applications. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14040778"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jciso.2024.100120","article-title":"A Comparative Investigation of Release Kinetics of Paclitaxel from Natural Protein and Macromolecular Nanocarriers in Nanoscale Drug Delivery Systems","volume":"15","author":"Viswanadha","year":"2024","journal-title":"JCIS Open"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e38165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e38165","article-title":"The Drug Release of PLGA-Based Nanoparticles and Their Application in Treatment of Gastrointestinal Cancers","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2306358","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202306358","article-title":"Enzymatically Activatable Polymers for Disease Diagnosis and Treatment","volume":"36","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevTherDrugCarrierSyst.2013006475","article-title":"Poly(Lactic-Co-Glycolic) Acid-Controlled-Release Systems: Experimental and Modeling Insights","volume":"30","author":"Hines","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2602","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.5b00346","article-title":"Degradable Controlled-Release Polymers and Polymeric Nanoparticles: Mechanisms of Controlling Drug Release","volume":"116","author":"Kamaly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-00908-7","article-title":"Current Approaches in Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Oral Drug Delivery","volume":"11","author":"Lozano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liao, S., Jia, S., Yue, Y., Zeng, H., Lin, J., and Liu, P. (2024). Advancements in PH-Responsive Nanoparticles for Osteoarthritis Treatment: Opportunities and Challenges. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1426794"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Lee, J., Ghosh, T., Nguyen, V.Q., Dey, A., Yoon, B., Um, W., and Park, J.H. (2022). Polymeric Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Delivery to Treat Arthritis. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14030540"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"401","article-title":"Functionalized Liposomes for Targeted Breast Cancer Drug Delivery","volume":"24","author":"Nel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, X., Zuo, X., Zhou, Z., Gu, Y., Zheng, H., Wang, X., Wang, G., Xu, C., and Wang, F. (2023). PLGA-Based Micro\/Nanoparticles: An Overview of Their Applications in Respiratory Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24054333"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawan, S., Kumari, A., Majie, A., Ghosh, A., Karmakar, V., Kumari, N., Ghosh, S., and Gorain, B. (2025). SiRNA-Based Nanotherapeutic Approaches for Targeted Delivery in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Biomater. Adv., 168.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2024.214120"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1820","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c10674","article-title":"Functionalized Nanomaterials Capable of Crossing the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier","volume":"18","author":"Zha","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chountoulesi, M., and Demetzos, C. (2020). Promising Nanotechnology Approaches in Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases of Central Nervous System. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10060338"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmaterialsau.3c00032","article-title":"Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Drug\/Gene Delivery: An Overview of the Production Techniques and Difficulties Encountered in Their Industrial Development","volume":"3","author":"Mehta","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Mater. Au"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Yang, Y.-G., and Sun, T. (2022). Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Induction of Tolerance and Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.889291"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medidd.2023.100163","article-title":"Exploring Potential of Exosomes Drug Delivery System in the Treatment of Cancer: Advances and Prospective","volume":"20","author":"Yadav","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medidd.2024.100183","article-title":"A Complex Molecular Landscape to Drug Delivery Concept for Achieving Precise Therapy in Psoriasis","volume":"22","author":"Yadav","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3479","DOI":"10.1039\/D2NA00229A","article-title":"Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment","volume":"4","author":"Nasra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2490","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.91394","article-title":"Nanotechnology in Inflammation: Cutting-Edge Advances in Diagnostics, Therapeutics and Theranostics","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7687","DOI":"10.1039\/D2MA00814A","article-title":"Recent Advances on Drug Delivery Nanoplatforms for the Treatment of Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases","volume":"3","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Lu, C., Yang, Y., Yu, C., and Rao, Y. (2020). Site-Specific Targeted Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Biomed. Pharmacother., 129.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110486"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100639","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202100639","article-title":"Liposomes and Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery Systems: A Comparison of Composition, Pharmacokinetics, and Functionalization","volume":"11","author":"Gandek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102355","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202102355","article-title":"A Review of Design and Fabrication Methods for Nanoparticle Network Hydrogels for Biomedical, Environmental, and Industrial Applications","volume":"31","author":"Campea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.123838","article-title":"Therapeutic Effect of 5-ASA and Hesperidin-Loaded Chitosan\/Eudragit\u00ae S100 Nanoparticles as a PH-Sensitive Carrier for Local Targeted Drug Delivery in a Rat Model of Ulcerative Colitis","volume":"652","author":"Abdollahy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-022-00458-5","article-title":"Polymeric Particle-Based Therapies for Acute Inflammatory Diseases","volume":"7","author":"Brannon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Michalowski, C.B., and Beloqui, A. (2021). Oral Delivery of Biologics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Treatment. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.675194"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.032","article-title":"Multifunctional Hydrogels Based on Chitosan, Hyaluronic Acid and Other Biological Macromolecules for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Review","volume":"227","author":"Ouyang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2019.05.002","article-title":"Lipidoid-SiRNA Nanoparticle-Mediated IL-1\u03b2 Gene Silencing for Systemic Arthritis Therapy in a Mouse Model","volume":"27","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5853","DOI":"10.1039\/D2TB01190E","article-title":"Nanoparticles for Oral Delivery: Targeted Therapy for Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6735","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S140992","article-title":"Multifunctional Folate Receptor-Targeting and PH-Responsive Nanocarriers Loaded with Methotrexate for Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1007\/s40199-024-00532-z","article-title":"Glatiramer Acetate in Situ Forming Gel, a New Approach for Multiple Sclerosis Treatment","volume":"32","author":"Shobeirean","year":"2024","journal-title":"DARU J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, S., Wang, W., Wang, Y., Gao, Y., Dai, K., Zhang, W., Wu, X., Yuan, X., Jin, C., and Zan, X. (2024). Sustained Release of 5-Aminosalicylic Acid from Azoreductase-Responsive Polymeric Prodrugs for Prolonged Colon-Targeted Colitis Therapy. J. Nanobiotechnol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02724-w"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajes, K., Walker, K., Hadam, S., Zabihi, F., Rancan, F., Vogt, A., and Haag, R. (2020). Redox-Responsive Nanocarrier for Controlled Release of Drugs in Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13010037"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2021.114083","article-title":"Clinical Translation of Nanomedicines: Challenges, Opportunities, and Keys","volume":"181","author":"Younis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljabali, A.A., Obeid, M.A., Bashatwah, R.M., Serrano-Aroca, \u00c1., Mishra, V., Mishra, Y., El-Tanani, M., Hromi\u0107-Jahjefendi\u0107, A., Kapoor, D.N., and Goyal, R. (2023). Nanomaterials and Their Impact on the Immune System. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032008"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2940","DOI":"10.2174\/0113816128275385231027054743","article-title":"Komal Poly(Lactic-Co-Glycolic) Acid (PLGA) Nanoparticles and Transdermal Drug Delivery: An Overview","volume":"29","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pondman, K., Le Gac, S., and Kishore, U. (2023). Nanoparticle-Induced Immune Response: Health Risk versus Treatment Opportunity?. Immunobiology, 228.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2022.152317"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e327","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.327","article-title":"Nanoparticles-induced Potential Toxicity on Human Health: Applications, Toxicity Mechanisms, and Evaluation Models","volume":"4","author":"Xuan","year":"2023","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hofer, S., Hofst\u00e4tter, N., Punz, B., Hasenkopf, I., Johnson, L., and Himly, M. (2022). Immunotoxicity of Nanomaterials in Health and Disease: Current Challenges and Emerging Approaches for Identifying Immune Modifiers in Susceptible Populations. WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol., 14.","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1804"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ly, P.-D., Ly, K.-N., Phan, H.-L., Nguyen, H.H.T., Duong, V.-A., and Nguyen, H.V. (2024). Recent Advances in Surface Decoration of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery. Front. Nanotechnol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnano.2024.1456939"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onano.2022.100048","article-title":"Scale-up Polymeric-Based Nanoparticles Drug Delivery Systems: Development and Challenges","volume":"7","author":"Herdiana","year":"2022","journal-title":"OpenNano"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14205","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c01117","article-title":"Microfluidic Devices: A Tool for Nanoparticle Synthesis and Performance Evaluation","volume":"17","author":"Gimondi","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-020-0090-8","article-title":"Engineering Precision Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery","volume":"20","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-023-01682-3","article-title":"Synthesis of Green Nanoparticles for Energy, Biomedical, Environmental, Agricultural, and Food Applications: A Review","volume":"22","author":"Osman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4653","DOI":"10.1039\/D0BM00558D","article-title":"The Regulation of Nanomaterials and Nanomedicines for Clinical Application: Current and Future Perspectives","volume":"8","author":"Foulkes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.3390\/micro3040058","article-title":"Microfluidic Devices for Precision Nanoparticle Production","volume":"3","author":"Bezelya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Micro"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2018.03.167","article-title":"Modelling the Synthesis of Nanoparticles in Continuous Microreactors: The Role of Diffusion and Residence Time Distribution on Nanoparticle Characteristics","volume":"350","author":"Panariello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.34172\/apb.2020.067","article-title":"Eco-Friendly Greener Synthesis of Nanoparticles","volume":"10","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waheed, S., Li, Z., Zhang, F., Chiarini, A., Armato, U., and Wu, J. (2022). Engineering Nano-Drug Biointerface to Overcome Biological Barriers toward Precision Drug Delivery. J. Nanobiotechnol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-022-01605-4"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-01024-2","article-title":"Current Hurdles to the Translation of Nanomedicines from Bench to the Clinic","volume":"12","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2018.06.024","article-title":"Regulatory Challenges of Nanomedicines and Their Follow-on Versions: A Generic or Similar Approach?","volume":"131","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumarasamy, R.V., Natarajan, P.M., Umapathy, V.R., Roy, J.R., Mironescu, M., and Palanisamy, C.P. (2024). Clinical Applications and Therapeutic Potentials of Advanced Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Review on Completed Human Clinical Trials. Front. Nanotechnol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnano.2024.1479993"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2023.103010","article-title":"A Review of Physical, Chemical and Biological Synthesis Methods of Bimetallic Nanoparticles and Applications in Sensing, Water Treatment, Biomedicine, Catalysis and Hydrogen Storage","volume":"321","author":"Nyabadza","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.169331","article-title":"Review on Fate, Transport, Toxicity and Health Risk of Nanoparticles in Natural Ecosystems: Emerging Challenges in the Modern Age and Solutions toward a Sustainable Environment","volume":"912","author":"Tran","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Liu, Z., Pang, Y., and Zhou, H. (2022). The Interaction between Nanoparticles and Immune System: Application in the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases. J. Nanobiotechnol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-022-01343-7"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wreh, E. (2023). Premarket Approval (PMA). Medical Device Regulation, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-95354-2.00016-5"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2021.104885","article-title":"Regulatory Landscape of Nanotechnology and Nanoplastics from a Global Perspective","volume":"122","author":"Allan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, T. (2022). Organ-on-a-Chip Microengineering for Bio-Mimicking Disease Models and Revolutionizing Drug Discovery. Biosens. Bioelectron. X, 11.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosx.2022.100194"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2578","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-024-01646-2","article-title":"Toward an International Standardisation Roadmap for Nanomedicine","volume":"14","author":"Caputo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2024.107086","article-title":"Biologics, Theranostics, and Personalized Medicine in Drug Delivery Systems","volume":"201","author":"Puccetti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, X., Tian, Y., Yang, R., Wang, H., Allahou, L.W., Chang, J., Williams, G., Knowles, J.C., and Poma, A. (2024). Nanotechnology in Healthcare, and Its Safety and Environmental Risks. J. Nanobiotechnol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02901-x"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2022.101694","article-title":"Recent Advances of Nanotechnology Application in Autoimmune Diseases\u2014A Bibliometric Analysis","volume":"48","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nano Today"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01668-1","article-title":"Multifunctional Nanoparticle-Mediated Combining Therapy for Human Diseases","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, R.S. (2023). Multifunctional Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications 2.0. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/books978-3-0365-8324-2"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.11.031","article-title":"An Overview of Biodegradable Nanomaterials and Applications in Vaccines","volume":"38","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1021\/accountsmr.2c00147","article-title":"Self-Adaptive Nanomaterials for Rational Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acc. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, L., Liu, J., Liu, Z., and Zhou, H. (2022). Immune Modulating Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Ocular Diseases. J. Nanobiotechnol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-022-01658-5"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29726","article-title":"Inorganic Nanoparticle-Cored Dendrimers for Biomedical Applications: A Review","volume":"10","author":"Fateh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigata, M., Meinert, C., Hutmacher, D.W., and Bock, N. (2020). Hydrogels as Drug Delivery Systems: A Review of Current Characterization and Evaluation Techniques. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12121188"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alghamdi, M.A., Fallica, A.N., Virz\u00ec, N., Kesharwani, P., Pittal\u00e0, V., and Greish, K. (2022). The Promise of Nanotechnology in Personalized Medicine. J. Pers. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12050673"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2674","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.64325","article-title":"Application of Nanomaterials in Proteomics-Driven Precision Medicine","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e19861","article-title":"Nanoparticles Targeting Monocytes and Macrophages as Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tools for Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"9","author":"Rojas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, J., Mu, J., Tang, Y., Qin, D., Duan, J., and Wu, A. (2023). Next-Generation Nanomaterials: Advancing Ocular Anti-Inflammatory Drug Therapy. J. Nanobiotechnol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01974-4"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29021","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.4c09919","article-title":"Patient-Specific Nanoparticle Targeting in Human Leukemia Blood","volume":"18","author":"Ju","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s40012-023-00380-3","article-title":"Digital Health: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges in Medical Devices, Pharma and Bio-Technology","volume":"11","author":"Kasoju","year":"2023","journal-title":"CSI Trans. ICT"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01889-y","article-title":"Current Advance of Nanotechnology in Diagnosis and Treatment for Malignant Tumors","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4557","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.38069","article-title":"Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery, Tumor Imaging, Therapy and Theranostics","volume":"10","author":"Mi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chi, X.-K., Xu, X.-L., Chen, B.-Y., Su, J., and Du, Y.-Z. (2023). Combining Nanotechnology with Monoclonal Antibody Drugs for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatments. J. Nanobiotechnol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01857-8"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, L., Li, Z., Lan, J., Wu, Y., Zhang, T., and Ding, Y. (2024). Better Together: Nanoscale Co-Delivery Systems of Therapeutic Agents for High-Performance Cancer Therapy. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1389922"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, J., Li, L., Guo, W., Zhang, J., Yao, Y., Chen, H., Liao, F., Jin, Z., Liu, L., and Ouyang, J. Nanoscale Synthetic Biology with Innovative Medicinal Applications. Fundam. Res., 2024. in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fmre.2024.11.006"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2023.2200246","article-title":"Nanotechnology-Enabled Gene Delivery for Cancer and Other Genetic Diseases","volume":"20","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5474","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c00388","article-title":"Stimuli-Responsive Nanomaterials for Tumor Immunotherapy","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarez, N., and Sevilla, A. (2024). Current Advances in Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) and the Future Potential of PDT-Combinatorial Cancer Therapies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25021023"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400510","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202400510","article-title":"Advanced Thermoactive Nanomaterials for Thermomedical Tissue Regeneration: Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"2024","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hua, J., Wu, P., Gan, L., Zhang, Z., He, J., Zhong, L., Zhao, Y., and Huang, Y. (2021). Current Strategies for Tumor Photodynamic Therapy Combined With Immunotherapy. Front. Oncol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2021.738323"}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Biomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/16\/1\/24\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:28:26Z","timestamp":1759919306000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/16\/1\/24"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jfb16010024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfb16010024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4983"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4983","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]]}}}