{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T15:33:12Z","timestamp":1781278392750,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Innovation Hub of the University of Zurich, Switzerland","award":["MEDEF25-044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MEDEF25-044"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006447","name":"University of Zurich","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Profit Center 42870"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Profit Center 42870"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006447","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Current in vitro tissue models struggle to recapitulate the structural, vascular, and mechanical complexity of human tissues, limiting their physiological relevance for disease modelling and preclinical testing. Self-organising three-dimensional cultures such as spheroids and organoids capture key aspects of cellular organisation and differentiation, but they commonly lack controlled geometry, perfusable vasculature, and reproducible mechanical microenvironments. Conversely, biofabrication strategies, such as three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting and organ-on-chip (OoC) microfluidic devices, offer spatial control, integrated perfusion, and dynamic mechanical stimulation, yet often fall short in recapitulating the full cellular diversity and self-organisation of native tissues. Notably, emerging hybrid approaches that embed self-organising biological units (e.g., organoids and spheroids) into engineered scaffolds or microfluidic platforms combine biological relevance, architectural fidelity, and functional control. Advances in bioink chemistry, sacrificial-printing vascularisation, and chip\u2013organoid interfaces now enable perfusable, multicompartment tissues suitable for disease modelling and preclinical testing. This review highlights the most recent (2020\u20132025) progress in organoid vascularisation, bioprinting strategies for prevascularised constructs, and OoC integration, outlining remaining challenges and emphasising priorities for next-generation hybrid cellular and tissue models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb17030135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T10:53:31Z","timestamp":1773140011000},"page":"135","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Living Tissues by Design: The Rise of Hybrid Models in Biofabrication"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8273-4619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Varvara","family":"Platania","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Orofacial Development and Regeneration, Institute of Oral Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Centre for Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3654-5833","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Argyro","family":"Lamprou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orofacial Development and Regeneration, Institute of Oral Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Centre for Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6994-6262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isaac Maximiliano","family":"Bugueno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orofacial Development and Regeneration, Institute of Oral Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Centre for Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institut de G\u00e9n\u00e9tique et de Biologie Mol\u00e9culaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS-UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00036.2016","article-title":"Modeling Physiological Events in 2D vs. 3D Cell Culture","volume":"32","author":"Duval","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-022-00775-w","article-title":"3D and organoid culture in research: Physiology, hereditary genetic diseases and cancer","volume":"12","author":"Carnero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Biosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2236","article-title":"The third dimension bridges the gap between cell culture and live tissue","volume":"8","author":"Pampaloni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"113","article-title":"Growth of Multicell Spheroids in Tissue Culture as a Model of Nodular Carcinomas2","volume":"46","author":"Sutherland","year":"1971","journal-title":"JNCI J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1126\/science.141.3579.401","article-title":"Reconstruction of tissues by dissociated cells. Some morphogenetic tissue movements and the sorting out of embryonic cells may have a common explanation","volume":"141","author":"Steinberg","year":"1963","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2008.226","article-title":"Spheroid-based drug screen: Considerations and practical approach","volume":"4","author":"Friedrich","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07935","article-title":"Single Lgr5 stem cells build crypt-villus structures in vitro without a mesenchymal niche","volume":"459","author":"Sato","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.05.082","article-title":"Modeling Development and Disease with Organoids","volume":"165","author":"Clevers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12517","article-title":"Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly","volume":"501","author":"Lancaster","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb3312","article-title":"Organoids as an in vitro model of human development and disease","volume":"18","author":"Fatehullah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-022-00174-y","article-title":"Organoids","volume":"2","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Primers"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pastore, M., Giachi, A., Sp\u00ednola-Lasso, E., Marra, F., and Raggi, C. (2025). Organoids and spheroids: Advanced in vitro models for liver cancer research. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2024.1536854"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-020-0259-3","article-title":"Human organoids: Model systems for human biology and medicine","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Xu, Z., Xiao, L., Shi, T., Xiao, H., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Xue, F., and Zeng, W. (2021). Review on the Vascularization of Organoids and Organoids-on-a-Chip. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.637048"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-022-00118-6","article-title":"A guide to the organ-on-a-chip","volume":"2","author":"Leung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Primers"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2025). Pushing the boundaries of biofabrication. Nat. Rev. Bioeng., 3, 103.","DOI":"10.1038\/s44222-025-00278-6"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2989","article-title":"Microfluidic organs-on-chips","volume":"32","author":"Bhatia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-022-00466-9","article-title":"Human organs-on-chips for disease modelling, drug development and personalized medicine","volume":"23","author":"Ingber","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1188302","article-title":"Reconstituting organ-level lung functions on a chip","volume":"328","author":"Huh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2958","article-title":"3D bioprinting of tissues and organs","volume":"32","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-7799(03)00033-7","article-title":"Organ printing: Computer-aided jet-based 3D tissue engineering","volume":"21","author":"Mironov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"183","article-title":"Recent progress of 3D printed vascularized tissues and organs","volume":"5","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10547","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.9b00789","article-title":"Bioprinting: From Tissue and Organ Development to in Vitro Models","volume":"120","author":"Mota","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4782","article-title":"Instrumented cardiac microphysiological devices via multimaterial three-dimensional printing","volume":"16","author":"Lind","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1038\/s44222-024-00268-0","article-title":"Organoid bioprinting: From cells to functional tissues","volume":"3","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4369","DOI":"10.1039\/D2LC00705C","article-title":"Bioprinting-based automated deposition of single cancer cell spheroids into oxygen sensor microelectrode wells","volume":"22","author":"Dornhof","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.2910340105","article-title":"Multicellular spheroids grown directly from human tumour material","volume":"34","author":"Wibe","year":"1984","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vinci, M., Gowan, S., Boxall, F., Patterson, L., Zimmermann, M., Court, W., Lomas, C., Mendiola, M., Hardisson, D., and Eccles, S.A. (2012). Advances in establishment and analysis of three-dimensional tumor spheroid-based functional assays for target validation and drug evaluation. BMC Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-10-29"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1039\/D1LC01177D","article-title":"A microfluidic hanging drop-based spheroid co-culture platform for probing tumor angiogenesis","volume":"22","author":"Rodoplu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3977","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.2c00491","article-title":"Generation of 3D Spheroids Using a Thiol\u2013Acrylate Hydrogel Scaffold to Study Endocrine Response in ER+ Breast Cancer","volume":"8","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wongpakham, T., Chunfong, T., Jeamsaksiri, W., Chessadangkul, K., Bhanpattanakul, S., Kallayanathum, W., Tharasanit, T., and Pimpin, A. (2024). Development of Pyramidal Microwells for Enhanced Cell Spheroid Formation in a Cell-on-Chip Microfluidic System for Cardiac Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13242132"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2215043","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202215043","article-title":"Advances in Spheroids and Organoids on a Chip","volume":"33","author":"Fang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45710-4","article-title":"A microfluidic platform integrating functional vascularized organoids-on-chip","volume":"15","author":"Quintard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10083","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-54504-7","article-title":"High-throughput bioprinting of spheroids for scalable tissue fabrication","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12168","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c12539","article-title":"Live Microscopy of Multicellular Spheroids with the Multimodal Near-Infrared Nanoparticles Reveals Differences in Oxygenation Gradients","volume":"18","author":"Debruyne","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nayak, P., Bentivoglio, V., Varani, M., and Signore, A. (2023). Three-Dimensional In Vitro Tumor Spheroid Models for Evaluation of Anticancer Therapy: Recent Updates. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15194846"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-021-00277-8","article-title":"Tumor-on-a-chip: From bioinspired design to biomedical application","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., Chen, A., Zhang, D., and He, Z. (2025). From Cells to Organoids: Approaches, Regulatory Mechanisms, Applications, and Challenges of Organoids. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14231898"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9420","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-53073-z","article-title":"Scalable production of uniform and mature organoids in a 3D geometrically-engineered permeable membrane","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2024.0118","article-title":"Organotypic 3D Cellular Models Mimicking the Epithelio-Ectomesenchymal Bilayer During Odontogenesis","volume":"31","author":"Jerbaka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part A"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cels.2023.08.002","article-title":"A microwell platform for high-throughput longitudinal phenotyping and selective retrieval of organoids","volume":"14","author":"Sockell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"21","article-title":"Engineering vascularised organoid-on-a-chip: Strategies, advances and future perspectives","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Transl."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-35619-1","article-title":"Large-scale perfused tissues via synthetic 3D soft microfluidics","volume":"14","author":"Grebenyuk","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6531","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.3c00873","article-title":"Advanced 3D Printing Strategies for the Controlled Delivery of Growth Factors","volume":"9","author":"Poerio","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c01824","article-title":"Sacrificial Templating for Accelerating Clinical Translation of Engineered Organs","volume":"11","author":"Malkani","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bosch-Ru\u00e9, \u00c8., D\u00edez-Tercero, L., Delgado, L.M., and P\u00e9rez, R.A. (2022). Biofabrication of Collagen Tissue-Engineered Blood Vessels with Direct Co-Axial Extrusion. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23105618"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2300213","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.202300213","article-title":"Digital Light Processing 3D Bioprinting of Gelatin-Norbornene Hydrogel for Enhanced Vascularization","volume":"23","author":"Duong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Macromol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2022.0158","article-title":"Engineering Vascular Bioreactor Systems to Closely Mimic Physiological Forces In Vitro","volume":"29","author":"Mitchell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.90492","article-title":"Human organoids-on-chips for biomedical research and applications","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345221145555","article-title":"The Application of Organs-on-a-Chip in Dental, Oral, and Craniofacial Research","volume":"102","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morales, I.A., Boghdady, C.M., Campbell, B.E., and Moraes, C. (2022). Integrating mechanical sensor readouts into organ-on-a-chip platforms. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.1060895"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-022-00882-6","article-title":"A multi-organ chip with matured tissue niches linked by vascular flow","volume":"6","author":"Teles","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Limon, S., Habib, A., Quigley, C., and Sarah, R. (2024). Advancing scaffold porosity through a machine learning framework in extrusion based 3D bioprinting. Front. Mater., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2023.1337485"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"lnad007","DOI":"10.1093\/lifemedi\/lnad007","article-title":"Advances in human organoids-on-chips in biomedical research","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Life Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crmeth.2024.100779","article-title":"Bioengineering methods for vascularizing organoids","volume":"4","author":"Nwokoye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Methods"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4346","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-40006-5","article-title":"Spatially controlled construction of assembloids using bioprinting","volume":"14","author":"Roth","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2024.05.026","article-title":"A genetically inducible endothelial niche enables vascularization of human kidney organoids with multilineage maturation and emergence of renin expressing cells","volume":"106","author":"Maggiore","year":"2024","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2024.118529","article-title":"Engineering next generation vascularized organoids","volume":"398","author":"Werschler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4827(88)90275-3","article-title":"Cytoscribing: A method for micropositioning cells and the construction of two- and three-dimensional synthetic tissues","volume":"179","author":"Klebe","year":"1988","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200600081","article-title":"Application of inkjet printing to tissue engineering","volume":"1","author":"Boland","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"356","article-title":"Embedded 3D bioprinting\u2014An emerging strategy to fabricate biomimetic & large vascularized tissue constructs","volume":"32","author":"Budharaju","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics9100589","article-title":"Effects of Coaxial Nozzle\u2019s Inner Nozzle Diameter on Filament Strength and Gelation in Extrusion-Based 3D Printing with In Situ Ionic Crosslinking","volume":"9","author":"Rahman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomimetics"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, Y.B., Lim, S., Lee, Y., Park, C.H., and Lee, H.J. (2023). Green Chemistry for Crosslinking Biopolymers: Recent Advances in Riboflavin-Mediated Photochemistry. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16031218"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23276","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-02830-x","article-title":"Systematic optimization of visible light-induced crosslinking conditions of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)","volume":"11","author":"Sharifi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2020.07.018","article-title":"Compact and tunable stretch bioreactor advancing tissue engineering implementation. Application to engineered cardiac constructs","volume":"84","author":"Putame","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014101","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ad084a","article-title":"A novel perfusion bioreactor promotes the expansion of pluripotent stem cells in a 3D-bioprinted tissue chamber","volume":"16","author":"Komosa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-14019-y","article-title":"Highly durable crack sensor integrated with silicone rubber cantilever for measuring cardiac contractility","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035023","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/acd8f4","article-title":"Flexible 3D printed microwires and 3D microelectrodes for heart-on-a-chip engineering","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10072","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-023-5651-9","article-title":"Sensors-integrated organ-on-a-chip for biomedical applications","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nano Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-023-00640-x","article-title":"Integration of multiple flexible electrodes for real-time detection of barrier formation with spatial resolution in a gut-on-chip system","volume":"10","author":"Lucchetti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1039\/D2LC01097F","article-title":"Organ-on-a-chip with integrated semitransparent organic electrodes for barrier function monitoring","volume":"23","author":"Marrero","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chliara, M.A., Elezoglou, S., and Zergioti, I. (2022). Bioprinting on Organ-on-Chip: Development and Applications. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12121135"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mierke, C.T. (2024). Bioprinting of Cells, Organoids and Organs-on-a-Chip Together with Hydrogels Improves Structural and Mechanical Cues. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13191638"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engmed.2024.100003","article-title":"Recent advances in 3D-printing-based organ-on-a-chip","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"EngMedicine"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2203172","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202203172","article-title":"Recent Advances in Organ-on-Chips Integrated with Bioprinting Technologies for Drug Screening","volume":"12","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-025-04547-4","article-title":"Geometrical constraints dictate assembly and phenotype of human iPSC-derived motoneuronal spheroids","volume":"16","author":"Mello","year":"2025","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, S.J., Liu, Z., Yang, F., Wang, H., George, D., Gracias, D.H., and Kim, D.H. (2025). 3D Spatiotemporal Activation Mapping of Cardiac Organoids Using Conformal Shell Microelectrode Arrays (MEAs). Res. Sq.","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202506793"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2020.02.011","article-title":"Fluorescent Biosensors for Neuronal Metabolism and the Challenges of Quantitation","volume":"63","author":"Koveal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-020-00185-3","article-title":"Microtechnology-based methods for organoid models","volume":"6","author":"Velasco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s40486-024-00216-y","article-title":"Microfabricated sensors for non-invasive, real-time monitoring of organoids","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Micro Nano Syst. Lett."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10604","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10604","article-title":"Sensor-integrated brain-on-a-chip platforms: Improving the predictive validity in neurodegenerative research","volume":"9","author":"Spitz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioeng. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarah, R., Schimmelpfennig, K., Rohauer, R., Lewis, C.L., Limon, S.M., and Habib, A. (2025). Characterization and Machine Learning-Driven Property Prediction of a Novel Hybrid Hydrogel Bioink Considering Extrusion-Based 3D Bioprinting. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11010045"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Liu, S., Chen, Y., Wang, M., Liu, Y., Qu, Z., Du, L., and Wu, C. (2025). Sophisticated Interfaces Between Biosensors and Organoids: Advancing Towards Intelligent Multimodal Monitoring Physiological Parameters. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15090557"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xpro.2022.101478","article-title":"Imaging neuronal migration and network activity in human forebrain assembloids","volume":"3","author":"Birey","year":"2022","journal-title":"STAR Protoc."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8043","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-43781-3","article-title":"Efficient generation of a self-organizing neuromuscular junction model from human pluripotent stem cells","volume":"14","author":"Urzi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-024-00719-z","article-title":"Strain sensor on a chip for quantifying the magnitudes of tensile stress on cells","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Barros, N.R., Harb, S.V., da Silva Horinouchi, C.D., Tofani, L.B., dos Santos, D.M., Elias, G.B., Velho, J.C.M., de Aguiar, A.C., Sant\u2019Ana, M., and Figueira, A.C.M. (2025). Advances in 3D Bioprinting and Microfluidics for Organ-on-a-Chip Platforms. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17223078"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1039\/D4LC00769G","article-title":"Developing 3D bioprinting for organs-on-chips","volume":"25","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lab Chip"}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Biomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/17\/3\/135\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T11:06:17Z","timestamp":1773140777000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/17\/3\/135"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jfb17030135"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfb17030135","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4983"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4983","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]}}}