{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T10:56:31Z","timestamp":1788864991282,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,19]],"date-time":"2026-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776556800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Dutch Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1292.19.354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1292.19.354"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["1292.19.354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1292.19.354"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04jsz6e67","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bioactive glass (BAG) S53P4 is a clinically approved bone substitute with antibacterial, osteoconductive and osteostimulatory properties. Its antibacterial effect is associated with ion release, local pH elevation and osmolality, but the precise biochemical and biophysical mode-of-action is unclear. This study investigates the antibacterial mechanism of BAG S53P4 eluates. BAG eluates, collected at 2, 4, 8, and 24 h, eradicated Staphylococcus aureus. Elemental analysis revealed an early increase in concentrations of Si and Na, a later rise in Ca, depletion of P over time and rapid loss of Mg. Membrane disturbances occurred within 5 min, evident by permeability for SYTOX, aligning with time-kill kinetics for S. aureus and Bacillus subtilis. In B. subtilis, 2h-BAG-eluate induced rapid delocalization of marker proteins for cell division and DNA repair, signaling membrane potential collapse and nucleoid condensation. Transcriptomics revealed early transcription remodeling reflecting ionic and energetic imbalance, including disruption of central metabolism, redox homeostasis, and translational stability. Scanning electron microscopy revealed severe cell surface damage and particulate deposits on S. aureus. Transmission electron microscopy showed cell envelop disruptions and cytoplasmic leakage. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis identified Si on bacterial cell surface at 4 h and intracellular accumulation in punctured, empty cells at 24 h. Overall, BAG ionic dissolution products kill bacteria through a stepwise mechanism involving membrane damage, protein delocalization and metabolic impairment, accompanied by Si deposition on bacterial surfaces and loss of Mg. This finally leads to cell wall degradation, cytoplasmic content leakage and further Si deposition on the cells and inside cell ghosts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb17040201","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T07:15:08Z","timestamp":1776669308000},"page":"201","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["How Bioactive Glass S53P4 Kills Bacteria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Deeksha","family":"Rajkumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3834-7048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrian","family":"Stiller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Science and Engineering, \u00c5bo Akademi, Henriksgatan 2, 20500 \u00c5bo, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0874-5026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jurian","family":"Wijnheijmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, C3.108, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6197-9861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ireen M.","family":"Schimmel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electron Microscopy Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9251-1403","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leendert W.","family":"Hamoen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, C3.108, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leena","family":"Hupa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Science and Engineering, \u00c5bo Akademi, Henriksgatan 2, 20500 \u00c5bo, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6392-3417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicole N. van der","family":"Wel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electron Microscopy Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4378-280X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Payal P. S.","family":"Balraadjsing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9589-186X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian A. 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