{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T10:08:35Z","timestamp":1790071715662,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789776000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Funct. Biomater.","JFB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biodegradable polymeric scaffolds incorporating bioactive mineral phases are a promising approach for dentin-pulp tissue engineering. Although poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles have been widely used as scaffolds due to their biocompatibility and tunable degradation profile, their inherent bioactivity is limited. Furthermore, fluorapatite (FAP), a fluoride-substituted apatite ceramic, exhibits enhanced chemical stability and mineral-related properties that may be useful for regenerative biomaterial design. In this study, we investigated the effect of nano-FAP functionalization on the physicochemical properties of porous PLGA microscaffolds and their interaction with human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs). Porous PLGA microscaffolds were fabricated using a double-emulsion solvent evaporation method and subsequently functionalized with FAP suspensions ranging from 0.1 to 5 mg\/mL (0.01\u20130.5% w\/v). The scaffolds were evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), electrical conductivity measurements, cell viability assays, and immunofluorescence. Lower and intermediate FAP concentrations-maintained surface pore accessibility and supported hDPSC viability, whereas the highest concentration (5 mg\/mL; 0.5% w\/v) reduced visible surface pore size and showed less favorable cellular responses. The 2.5 mg\/mL (0.25% w\/v) FAP condition provided the most favorable overall balance among the evaluated physicochemical and biological parameters. These preliminary in vitro findings support further investigation of FAP-functionalized PLGA microscaffolds in advanced three-dimensional and in vivo models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb17090479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T09:04:17Z","timestamp":1790067857000},"page":"479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biofabrication and Characterization of Fluorapatite-Coated Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Microscaffolds: Physicochemical Properties and Human Dental Pulp Stem Cell Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6311-3809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saya Hadi","family":"Raouf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Dentistry, Hawler Medical University (HMU), Kurdistan Region, Erbil 44001, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8273-4619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Varvara","family":"Platania","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orofacial Development & Regeneration Unit, Center for Dental Medicine, Plattenstrasse 11, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3654-5833","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Argyro","family":"Lamprou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orofacial Development & Regeneration Unit, Center for Dental Medicine, Plattenstrasse 11, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1897-6349","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youri","family":"Arntz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inserm UMR_S 1121, Laboratoire de Biomat\u00e9riaux et Bioing\u00e9nierie, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, 67085 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Iryna","family":"Lysova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inserm UMR_S 1121, Laboratoire de Biomat\u00e9riaux et Bioing\u00e9nierie, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, 67085 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6956-1688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diyar Khalid","family":"Bakr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Dentistry, Hawler Medical University (HMU), Kurdistan Region, Erbil 44001, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4581-5700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Niaz Hamaghareeb","family":"Hamasaeed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Dentistry, Hawler Medical University (HMU), Kurdistan Region, Erbil 44001, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9623-6098","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutlu","family":"\u00d6zcan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic of Masticatory Disorders and Dental Biomaterials, Center for Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6994-6262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isaac Maximiliano","family":"Bugueno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orofacial Development & Regeneration Unit, Center for Dental Medicine, Plattenstrasse 11, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institut de G\u00e9n\u00e9tique et de Biologie Mol\u00e9culaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), INSERM U1258, CNRS UMR7104, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shah, D., Lynd, T., Ho, D., Chen, J., Vines, J., Jung, H.-D., Kim, J.-H., Zhang, P., Wu, H., and Jun, H.-W. (2020). Pulp\u2013Dentin Tissue Healing Response: A Discussion of Current Biomedical Approaches. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9020434"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/s41415-025-8560-3","article-title":"Vital Pulp Therapies in Permanent Teeth: What, When, Where, Who, Why and How?","volume":"238","author":"Colloc","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olaru, M., Sachelarie, L., and Calin, G. (2021). Hard Dental Tissues Regeneration\u2014Approaches and Challenges. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14102558"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"e74121","article-title":"Recent Advances in Regenerative Endodontics: A Review of Current Techniques and Future Directions","volume":"16","author":"Alothman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.identj.2023.07.008","article-title":"Advances in Regenerative Dentistry Approaches: An Update","volume":"74","author":"Thalakiriyawa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1097\/01.don.0000164138.49923.e5","article-title":"The Application of Tissue Engineering to Regeneration of Pulp and Dentin in Endodontics","volume":"31","author":"Nakashima","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60761-999-4_9","article-title":"A Method to Isolate and Culture Expand Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells","volume":"698","author":"Gronthos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bugueno, I.M., Alastra, G., Balic, A., Stadlinger, B., and Mitsiadis, T.A. (2024). Limited Adipogenic Differentiation Potential of Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells Compared to Human Bone Marrow Stem Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252011105"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1177\/154405910208100806","article-title":"Stem Cell Properties of Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells","volume":"81","author":"Gronthos","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sultana, N. (2026). Bone Tissue Engineering: Scaffold Design Principles, Biomaterial Advances, and Strategies for Functional Regeneration and Clinical Translation. Bioengineering, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13050514"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsaab, H.O., Alharbi, F.D., Alhibs, A.S., Alanazi, N.B., Alshehri, B.Y., Saleh, M.A., Alshehri, F.S., Algarni, M.A., Almugaiteeb, T., and Uddin, M.N. (2022). PLGA-Based Nanomedicine: History of Advancement and Development in Clinical Applications of Multiple Diseases. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122728"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bprint.2018.e00038","article-title":"3D Printing Bioactive PLGA Scaffolds Using DMSO as a Removable Solvent","volume":"10","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioprinting"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bprint.2022.e00247","article-title":"Enhancing Cell Survival in 3D Printing of Organoids Using Innovative Bioinks Loaded with Pre-Cellularized Porous Microscaffolds","volume":"28","author":"Rousselle","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioprinting"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuriakose, A.E., Hu, W., Nguyen, K.T., and Menon, J.U. (2019). Scaffold-Based Lung Tumor Culture on Porous PLGA Microparticle Substrates. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0217640"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Cheng, D., Niu, B., Wang, X., Wu, X., and Wang, A. (2023). Properties of Poly (Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid) and Progress of Poly (Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid)-Based Biodegradable Materials in Biomedical Research. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16030454"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2108300","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202108300","article-title":"High-Strength and Injectable Supramolecular Hydrogel Self-Assembled by Monomeric Nucleoside for Tooth-Extraction Wound Healing","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01978","DOI":"10.1002\/slct.202501978","article-title":"Fluorapatite: A Comprehensive Review of Synthesis, Biological Properties, and Environmental Applications","volume":"10","author":"Benbouda","year":"2025","journal-title":"ChemistrySelect"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kazimierczak, P., Wessely-Szponder, J., Palka, K., Barylyak, A., Zinchenko, V., and Przekora, A. (2023). Hydroxyapatite or Fluorapatite\u2014Which Bioceramic Is Better as a Base for the Production of Bone Scaffold?\u2014A Comprehensive Comparative Study. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065576"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pajor, K., Pajchel, L., and Kolmas, J. (2019). Hydroxyapatite and Fluorapatite in Conservative Dentistry and Oral Implantology-A Review. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12172683"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14469","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50916-4","article-title":"Antibacterial Properties and Regenerative Potential of Sr2+ and Ce3+ Doped Fluorapatites; a Potential Solution for Peri-Implantitis","volume":"9","author":"Anastasiou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01415","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202501415","article-title":"Ti2NTx MXene and Carbon Quantum Dots Modified Chitosan Scaffold for Potential Wound Healing: In Vitro Assessment of Cytotoxicity, Hemocompatibility, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Properties","volume":"9","author":"Karatas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-022-03691-0","article-title":"A New Hydrogel with Fluorapatite Nanoparticles for Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering Field","volume":"390","author":"Rohani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiglusz, K., Dobrzynski, M., Gutbier, M., and Wiglusz, R.J. (2023). Nanofluorapatite Hydrogels in the Treatment of Dentin Hypersensitivity: A Study of Physiochemical Properties and Fluoride Release. Gels, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9040271"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2009). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 5: Tests for In Vitro Cytotoxicity (Standard No. ISO 10993-5:2009). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/36406.html."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12347","DOI":"10.3390\/s120912347","article-title":"Multiple Applications of Alamar Blue as an Indicator of Metabolic Function and Cellular Health in Cell Viability Bioassays","volume":"12","author":"Rampersad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.3390\/polym3031377","article-title":"Poly Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) as Biodegradable Controlled Drug Delivery Carrier","volume":"3","author":"Makadia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3640","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms15033640","article-title":"An Overview of Poly(Lactic-Co-Glycolic) Acid (PLGA)-Based Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering","volume":"15","author":"Gentile","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13625","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.240309797","article-title":"Postnatal Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells (DPSCs) In Vitro and In Vivo","volume":"97","author":"Gronthos","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034509340867","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived from Dental Tissues vs. Those from Other Sources: Their Biology and Role in Regenerative Medicine","volume":"88","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034511405326","article-title":"Scaffolds for Dental Pulp Tissue Engineering","volume":"23","author":"Galler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2014.01.013","article-title":"Functionalized Scaffolds to Control Dental Pulp Stem Cell Fate","volume":"40","author":"Piva","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1177\/0885328207077632","article-title":"Preparation and Properties of Poly(Lactide-Co-Glycolide) (PLGA)\/ Nano-Hydroxyapatite (NHA) Scaffolds by Thermally Induced Phase Separation and Rabbit MSCs Culture on Scaffolds","volume":"22","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Appl."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, M., Khaleel, A., Karam, S.M., Al-Marzouqi, A.H., Ur Rehman, I., and Mohsin, S. (2023). Bacterial Inhibition and Osteogenic Potentials of Sr\/Zn Co-Doped Nano-Hydroxyapatite-PLGA Composite Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.54985\/peeref.2306p7862520"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2012.02.014","article-title":"Comparative Characterization of Stem Cells from Human Exfoliated Deciduous Teeth and Dental Pulp Stem Cells","volume":"57","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034514547914","article-title":"Fluorapatite-Modified Scaffold on Dental Pulp Stem Cell Mineralization","volume":"93","author":"Guo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2018.e00775","article-title":"In Vitro Response of Dental Pulp Stem Cells in 3D Scaffolds: A Regenerative Bone Material","volume":"4","author":"Infante","year":"2018","journal-title":"Heliyon"}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Biomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/17\/9\/479\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T09:41:11Z","timestamp":1790070071000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/17\/9\/479"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jfb17090479"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfb17090479","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4983"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4983","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]}}}