{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T12:52:13Z","timestamp":1788958333332,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100032605","name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100032605","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFMK"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Balance is referred to as a state of equilibrium where forces of agonist and antagonistic muscles are equal. This is particularly relevant in the practice of Goju-Ryu Karate-Do, a martial art style with combinations of hard and soft techniques. Particularly, karate stances not only depend on technical aspects but also on the ability to achieve a centered posture. In this narrative review, we aim to integrate the existing knowledge about alignment parameters of the spine to various stances in Goju-Ryu Karate-Do to improve biomechanical understanding, allow technical modifications, and consequently enhance positive training experience. Balance is constantly challenged during the interplay of accelerated movements and subsequent controlled postures (Japanese: \u201cKamae\u201d). This requires continuous neuromuscular coordination to maintain the body\u2019s equilibrium. In particular, the body\u2019s center of gravity, which is located around the second sacral vertebra in a standing position, needs to be kept within Dubousset\u2019s \u201cefficiency cone\u201d for low energy consumption and minimal fatigue. This state is primarily maintained by aligning the spine, the pelvis, and the lower extremities, which is a result of complex biomechanical interactions of various spinopelvic parameters. Applying these concepts of Dubousset to stances in Goju-Ryu Karate-Do helps to explain why during the aging process or natural degeneration, technical modifications are needed to guarantee an optimal training experience in senior or disabled practitioners of Karate-Do. Biomechanical parameters of the spinopelvic axis are crucial in mastering the art of Goju-Ryu Karate-Do. Only with a balanced stance and an optimally situated center of gravity, a block or attack may be successful and movement strategies effective. However, technical modifications of stances must be considered in aged or disabled karateka to allow a sustained training experience.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfmk11010011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,28]],"date-time":"2025-12-28T23:54:36Z","timestamp":1766966076000},"page":"11","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Applying Principles of Biomechanics of the Spine to Martial Arts: A Review on Balance of Stances in Goju-Ryu Karate-Do"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0073-5651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Fiechter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Center, Spine Surgery, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Swiss Goju-Ryu Karate-Do Renmei (SGRKR), 6330 Cham, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"P\u00f6tzel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Center, Spine Surgery, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8662-7431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc E.","family":"Pfeifer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Goju-Ryu Karate-Do Renmei (SGRKR), 6330 Cham, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Life Sciences, School of Engineering, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO Valais-Wallis), 1950 Sion, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Williams, J. (2021). G\u014dj\u016b-Ry\u016b Karate-D\u014d Desk Reference: Volume 1: Introduction and Historic Chronology, Independently Published. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1889","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-019-06083-1","article-title":"Sagittal balance of the spine","volume":"28","author":"Thompson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.22603\/ssrr.2022-0038","article-title":"Cone of Economy with the Chain of Balance-Historical Perspective and Proof of Concept","volume":"6","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spine Surg. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1097\/01.brs.0000152379.54463.65","article-title":"Classification of the normal variation in the sagittal alignment of the human lumbar spine and pelvis in the standing position","volume":"30","author":"Roussouly","year":"2005","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e31823e15e2","article-title":"Scoliosis Research Society-Schwab adult spinal deformity classification: A validation study","volume":"37","author":"Schwab","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-011-1935-y","article-title":"Thoracolumbar imbalance analysis for osteotomy planification using a new method: FBI technique","volume":"20","author":"Leijssen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2015.10.024","article-title":"Sagittal alignment of the spine: What do you need to know?","volume":"139","author":"Diebo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-020-06678-z","article-title":"Cone of economy classification: Evolution, concept of stability, severity level, and correlation to patient-reported outcome scores","volume":"30","author":"Haddas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2021.04.038","article-title":"Balance effort, Cone of Economy, and dynamic compensatory mechanisms in common degenerative spinal pathologies","volume":"89","author":"Haddas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S834","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-013-3030-z","article-title":"Compensatory mechanisms contributing to keep the sagittal balance of the spine","volume":"22","author":"Barrey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.00279","article-title":"Insights into the evolution of human bipedalism from experimental studies of humans and other primates","volume":"206","author":"Schmitt","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s12052-010-0257-6","article-title":"The First Hominins and the Origins of Bipedalism","volume":"3","year":"2010","journal-title":"Evol. Educ. Outreach"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-020-06411-w","article-title":"What is actually happening inside the \u201ccone of economy\u201d: Compensatory mechanisms during a dynamic balance test","volume":"29","author":"Haddas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-023-07949-1","article-title":"Adult spinal deformity correction surgery using age-adjusted alignment thresholds: Clinical outcomes and mechanical complication rates. A systematic review of the literature","volume":"33","author":"Quarto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1007\/s43390-020-00112-6","article-title":"Surgical correction of Adult Spinal Deformity in accordance to the Roussouly classification: Effect on postoperative mechanical complications","volume":"8","author":"Bari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spine Deform."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Higaonna, R. (1985). Traditional Karate-Do\u2014Okinawa Goju Ryu, Sugawara Martial Arts Insititute, Inc."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Cogen, M.P., Mse, M.P.C., and Sanguinetti, F. (2003). A Goju Ryu Guidebook: The Kogen Kan Manual for Karate, Trafford Publishing."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Toguchi, S. (1976). Okinawan Goju-Ryu: Fundamentals of Shorei-Kan Karate, Black Belt Communications, Incorporated."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nec.2012.12.009","article-title":"Clinical and radiographic evaluation of the adult spinal deformity patient","volume":"24","author":"Smith","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.11.SPINE19978","article-title":"Influence of comorbid knee osteoarthritis on surgical outcome and sagittal spinopelvic\/lower-extremity alignment in elderly patients with degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis undergoing transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion","volume":"32","author":"Kohno","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Spine"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Vital, J.M., and Cawley, D.T. (2020). The Standing Position: Its Principles and Spinopelvic Relations. Spinal Anatomy: Modern Concepts, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000004957","article-title":"Impact of Hip and Knee Osteoarthritis on Full Body Sagittal Alignment and Compensation for Sagittal Spinal Deformity","volume":"49","author":"Lafage","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-1747947","article-title":"The Influence of Knee Osteoarthritis on Spinopelvic Alignment and Global Sagittal Balance","volume":"36","author":"Katsumi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Knee Surg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knee.2021.02.027","article-title":"Relationships between the changes in flexion contracture and standing flexion angle of the knee and sagittal spinal alignment after total knee arthroplasty","volume":"29","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Knee"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-003-0593-0","article-title":"Natural history of the aging spine","volume":"12","author":"Benoist","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S97","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-003-0621-0","article-title":"Biomechanics of the aging spine","volume":"12","author":"Ferguson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1007\/s43390-022-00522-8","article-title":"Defining age-adjusted spinopelvic alignment thresholds: Should we integrate BMI?","volume":"10","author":"Passias","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spine Deform."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-011-1930-3","article-title":"Sagittal balance disorders in severe degenerative spine. Can we identify the compensatory mechanisms?","volume":"20","author":"Barrey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.1111\/os.13807","article-title":"Compensation Characteristics of Spinal Sagittal Malalignment According to Pelvic Incidence in Elderly Patients with Degenerative Lumbar Spinal Stenosis","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000001171","article-title":"Defining Spino-Pelvic Alignment Thresholds: Should Operative Goals in Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery Account for Age?","volume":"41","author":"Lafage","year":"2016","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-011-1938-8","article-title":"Sagittal imbalance cascade for simple degenerative spine and consequences: Algorithm of decision for appropriate treatment","volume":"20","author":"Charosky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.7.SPINE181104","article-title":"The MISDEF2 algorithm: An updated algorithm for patient selection in minimally invasive deformity surgery","volume":"32","author":"Mummaneni","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Spine"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E6","DOI":"10.3171\/2014.3.FOCUS1413","article-title":"The minimally invasive spinal deformity surgery algorithm: A reproducible rational framework for decision making in minimally invasive spinal deformity surgery","volume":"36","author":"Mummaneni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4627","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-024-08531-z","article-title":"Defining modern iatrogenic flatback syndrome: Examination of segmental lordosis in short lumbar fusion patients undergoing thoracolumbar deformity correction","volume":"33","author":"Diebo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s43390-023-00735-5","article-title":"Adult cervical spine deformity: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"12","author":"Hockley","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spine Deform."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.1.SPINE181494","article-title":"Treatment of adult thoracolumbar spinal deformity: Past, present, and future","volume":"30","author":"Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Spine"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.3171\/2020.6.SPINE20363","article-title":"Practical answers to frequently asked questions for shared decision-making in adult spinal deformity surgery","volume":"34","author":"Ogura","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Spine"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000005056","article-title":"Preoperative Physical Therapy is Associated with Decreased Length of Stay and Improved Postoperative Mobility in Patients with Sarcopenia Undergoing Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery","volume":"50","author":"Hirase","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000004717","article-title":"Factors Influencing Maintenance of Alignment and Functional Improvement Following Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery: A 3-Year Outcome Analysis","volume":"49","author":"Passias","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1007\/s12603-021-1665-8","article-title":"International Exercise Recommendations in Older Adults (ICFSR): Expert Consensus Guidelines","volume":"25","author":"Izquierdo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5142\/11\/1\/11\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T05:13:28Z","timestamp":1766985208000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5142\/11\/1\/11"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jfmk11010011"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfmk11010011","relation":{},"ISSN":["2411-5142"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2411-5142","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]}}}