{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T22:52:05Z","timestamp":1790117525557,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFMK"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Research on vibrations induced by running has gained significant attention due to its implications for athletes\u2019 performance, injury prevention, and overall well-being. Distance running exposes the body to repetitive impulsive forces, causing significant vibrations to travel through physiological systems and biomechanical structures. These vibrations increase fatigue and the risk of injury. Although it has gained importance, research on induced vibration during running and wearable equipment for monitoring is scarce. This study aims to evaluate the performance of a measurement system for monitoring the acceleration levels of induced vibrations during long-distance running, exploring the capability of non-invasive wearable devices to characterise vibration transmissibility and exposure. Moreover, a preliminary quantitative assessment of induced vibration levels for an indoor testing scenario is given. Methods: Metrological characterisation of Xsens Motion Trackers Awinda (MTw), off-the-shelf inertial magnetic motion trackers, was performed by measuring the sensors\u2019 frequency bandwidth in a controlled environment, providing logarithmic sweep sine excitations at different levels (2 g, 5 g, 7 g, where g is meant to be the gravitational acceleration). A testing protocol for indoor testing was derived from the literature, allowing characterisation of the sensors\u2019 behaviour in terms of vibration transmissibility and exposure detection in the intended application. Time domain and frequency domain analyses were conducted by following the ISO 2631 standard guideline for vibration exposure assessment, and measurement uncertainty was defined, either for the dynamic correction of the sensors\u2019 frequency behaviour or for the computed time and frequency domain metrics. In this framework, a treadmill-based test was conducted. The aim was to evaluate the Xsens sensors\u2019 performance in measuring vibration dose exposure and transmissibility. Three MTws were placed on the subject\u2019s right tibia, back, and forehead using elastic bands. A 25-year-old female amateur runner completed a series of tests consisting of walking for 1 min at 3.5 km\/h (instrumentation setup), followed by running at two speeds (8 km\/h and 11 km\/h) for 2\u20134 min per trial, with 5 min rest periods between tests. Conclusions: The tested measurement system showed promising results due to its capability to assess vibration exposure during sports activities, but dynamic correction was found to be mandatory for accurate vibration level assessment. The main outcome of this study is a method for characterising the accelerometers embedded in the proposed devices, along with an analysis strategy for future testing campaigns. Thanks to the portability of IMUs (inertial measurement units), this approach enables the evaluation of induced vibrations during in-field running measurements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfmk11010082","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T15:28:18Z","timestamp":1771428498000},"page":"82","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Assessment of Xsens Motion Trackers\u2019 Accuracy to Measure Induced Vibrations During Endurance Running"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1925-4145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Martina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4426-5505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Appiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3089-8942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Scaccabarozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Harrast, M.A. (2020). Incidence, Prevalence, and Risk Factors of Running-Related Injuries: An Epidemiologic Review. Clinical Care of the Runner, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1177\/036354659001800408","article-title":"Long distance running and osteoarthrosis","volume":"18","author":"Konradsen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2010.01.001","article-title":"Effects of running speed on a probabilistic stress fracture model","volume":"25","author":"Edwards","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.13972","article-title":"The effect of speed on Achilles tendon forces and patellofemoral joint stresses in high-performing endurance runners","volume":"31","author":"Starbuck","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.67B5.4055871","article-title":"Stress Fractures in Military Recruits: A Prospective Study Showing an Unusually High Incidence","volume":"67-B","author":"Milgrom","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg. Br."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738112445871","article-title":"Common Leg Injuries of Long-Distance Runners: Anatomical and Biomechanical Approach","volume":"4","author":"Gallo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2006.033548","article-title":"Incidence and determinants of lower extremity running injuries in long distance runners: A systematic review","volume":"41","author":"Siem","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-015-0333-8","article-title":"Incidence of running-related injuries per 1000 h of running in different types of runners: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"45","author":"Bueno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325967113487316","DOI":"10.1177\/2325967113487316","article-title":"Predictors of running-related injuries among 930 novice runners: A 1-year prospective follow-up study","volume":"1","author":"Nielsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Orthop. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-022-00524-w","article-title":"Soft Tissue Vibrations in Running: A Narrative Review","volume":"8","author":"Play","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Med. Open"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1097\/00003677-200101000-00008","article-title":"Impact Forces and Muscle Tuning: A New Paradigm","volume":"29","author":"Nigg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2015.08.024","article-title":"Fatigue and soft tissue vibration during prolonged running","volume":"44","author":"Khassetarash","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2001.90.2.412","article-title":"Modification of Soft Tissue Vibrations in the Leg by Muscular Activity","volume":"90","author":"Wakeling","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.01.002","article-title":"Muscle activity in the leg is tuned in response to impact force characteristics","volume":"37","author":"Boyer","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/00001433-199712000-00007","article-title":"Impact forces in running","volume":"8","author":"Nigg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00142.2002","article-title":"Muscle Activity Damps the Soft Tissue Resonance That Occurs in Response to Pulsed and Continuous Vibrations","volume":"93","author":"Wakeling","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsb.2.1.41","article-title":"Factors Affecting Peak Vertical Ground Reaction Forces in Running","volume":"2","author":"Frederick","year":"1986","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Biomech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2022.2093649","article-title":"Does Neuromuscular Fatigue Generated by Trail Running Modify Foot-Ground Impact and Soft Tissue Vibrations?","volume":"23","author":"Trama","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2019.06.026","article-title":"Vibration Settling Time of the Gastrocnemius Remains Constant during an Exhaustive Run in Rearfoot Strike Runners","volume":"93","author":"Khassetarash","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2010.08.034","article-title":"Tissue Vibration in Prolonged Running","volume":"44","author":"Friesenbichler","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000002194","article-title":"Midsole Properties Affect the Amplitude of Soft Tissue Vibrations in Heel\u2013Toe Runners","volume":"52","author":"Giandolini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S25","DOI":"10.1080\/19424280.2017.1313902","article-title":"Footwear Influences Soft-Tissue Vibrations in Rearfoot Strike Runners","volume":"9","author":"Giandolini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Footwear Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, C.T., and Goh, J.C.H. (2010). The Role of Footwear on Impact Forces and Soft Tissue Vibrations during Active and Passive Landings. Proceedings of the 6th World Congress of Biomechanics (WCB 2010), Singapore, 1\u20136 August 2010, Springer. IFMBE Proceedings.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-14515-5"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2018.10.023","article-title":"Effect of rocker shoes and running speed on lower limb mechanics and soft tissue vibrations","volume":"82","author":"Trama","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsb.8.4.288","article-title":"Spectral Analysis of Impact Shock during Running","volume":"8","author":"Shorten","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Biomech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behling, A.V., Giandolini, M., von Tscharner, V., and Nigg, B.M. (2021). Soft-Tissue Vibration and Damping Response to Footwear Changes across a Wide Range of Anthropometrics in Running. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256296"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000002182","article-title":"Compression Garments Reduce Muscle Movement and Activation during Submaximal Running","volume":"52","author":"Broatch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.04.019","article-title":"A Protocol for Monitoring Soft Tissue Motion under Compression Garments during Drop Landings","volume":"44","author":"Mills","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.52082\/jssm.2023.166","article-title":"Reliability of Soft Tissue Vibration Measurement and Number of Steps Demanded during Treadmill Running","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ptsp.2017.10.003","article-title":"Innovations and pitfalls in the use of wearable devices in the prevention and rehabilitation of running related injuries","volume":"29","author":"Willy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Ther. Sport"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debertin, D., Wargel, A., and Mohr, M. (2024). Reliability of Xsens IMU-Based Lower Extremity Joint Angles during In-Field Running. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24030871"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Paulich, M., Schepers, M., Rudigkeit, N., and Bellusci, G. (2018). Xsens MTw Awinda: Miniature Wireless Inertial-Magnetic Motion Tracker for Highly Accurate 3D Kinematic Applications. Preprints."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Xsens Technologies B.V MTw Awinda User Manual, Xsens Technologies B.V.. latest edition."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.875664","article-title":"Quaternion-based extended Kalman filter for determining orientation by inertial and magnetic sensing","volume":"53","author":"Sabatini","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(1997). Mechanical Vibration and Shock\u2014Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-Body Vibration. Part I: General Requirements (Standard No. ISO 2631-1)."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2014.961969","article-title":"Whole-body vibration exposure in sport: Four relevant cases","volume":"58","author":"Tarabini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2014.945494","article-title":"Analysis of non-linear response of the human body to vertical whole-body vibration","volume":"57","author":"Tarabini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.3390\/vibration4040041","article-title":"Effect of the Shoe Sole on the Vibration Transmitted from the Supporting Surface to the Feet","volume":"4","author":"Tarabini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vibration"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2011.08.030","article-title":"The potential of micro-electro-mechanical accelerometers in human vibration measurements","volume":"331","author":"Tarabini","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2005.01.027","article-title":"Soft tissue vibrations within one soft tissue compartment","volume":"39","author":"Nigg","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biomech."}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5142\/11\/1\/82\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T15:49:31Z","timestamp":1771429771000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5142\/11\/1\/82"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jfmk11010082"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfmk11010082","relation":{},"ISSN":["2411-5142"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2411-5142","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]}}}