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Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate sex estimation is critical in forensic anthropology for developing biological profiles, with the mandible serving as a valuable alternative when crania or pelvic bones are unavailable. This study aims to enhance mandibular sex estimation using deep learning on 3D models in a southern Croatian population. A dataset of 254 MSCT-derived 3D mandibular models (127 male, 127 female) was processed to generate 4096-point clouds, analyzed using an adapted PointNet++ architecture. The dataset was split into training (60%), validation (20%), and test (20%) sets. Unsupervised analysis employed an autoencoder with t-SNE visualization, while supervised classification used logistic regression on extracted features, evaluated by accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and MCC. The model achieved 93% cross-validation accuracy and 92% test set accuracy, with saliency maps highlighting key sexually dimorphic regions like the chin, gonial, and condylar areas. A user-friendly Gradio web application was developed for real-time sex classification from STL files, enhancing forensic applicability. This approach outperformed traditional mandibular sex estimation methods and could have potential as a robust, automated tool for forensic practice, broader population studies and integration with diverse 3D data sources.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging11100328","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]],"date-time":"2025-09-24T10:39:42Z","timestamp":1758710382000},"page":"328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Classifying Sex from MSCT-Derived 3D Mandibular Models Using an Adapted PointNet++ Deep Learning Approach in a Croatian Population"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Eva","family":"Shimkus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Program in Biochemistry and Biophysics, Amherst College, Amherst, MA 01002, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivana","family":"Kru\u017ei\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Forensic Sciences, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sa\u0161a","family":"Mladenovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4345-6484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iva","family":"Peri\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Abdominal Surgery, University Hospital Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7729-4041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marija Juri\u0107","family":"Gunja\u010da","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Abdominal Surgery, University Hospital Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tade","family":"Tadi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Abdominal Surgery, University Hospital Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0018-0075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kre\u0161imir","family":"Doli\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Abdominal Surgery, University Hospital Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u0160imun","family":"An\u0111elinovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Abdominal Surgery, University Hospital Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u017deljana","family":"Ba\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Forensic Sciences, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Jerkovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Forensic Sciences, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Charles, C. 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