{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T12:23:47Z","timestamp":1777379027198,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of vision impairment and permanent blindness worldwide, requiring accurate and automated systems for multi-grade severity classification. However, standard Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) often struggle to capture fine, high-frequency microvascular patterns critical for diagnosis. This study proposes a Robust Intelligent CNN Model (RICNN) that integrates Gabor-based feature extraction with deep learning to improve DR classification. Specifically, Gabor filters are applied during preprocessing to extract orientation- and frequency-sensitive texture features, which are transformed into feature maps and concatenated with CNN feature representations at the fully connected layer (feature-level fusion). The model also incorporates the Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE) for data balancing and the Adam optimizer for efficient convergence. This integration enhances sensitivity to microvascular structures such as microaneurysms and hemorrhages. The proposed RICNN was evaluated on the Messidor dataset (1200 images) across four severity levels: Mild, Moderate, Severe, and Proliferative DR. The model achieved an accuracy of 89%, a precision of 88.75%, a recall of 89%, and an F1-score of 89%, with AUCs of 97% for Severe DR and 99% for Proliferative DR. Comparative analysis confirms that the proposed texture-aware Gabor enhancement significantly outperforms LBP and Color Histogram approaches, indicating its potential for reliable clinical decision support.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging12050188","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T08:12:31Z","timestamp":1777363951000},"page":"188","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Robust Intelligent CNN Model Enhanced with Gabor-Based Feature Extraction, SMOTE Balancing, and Adam Optimization for Multi-Grade Diabetic Retinopathy Classification"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8496-7726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asri","family":"Mulyani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Semarang 50131, Indonesia"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Institut Teknologi Garut, Garut 44151, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6059-3571","authenticated-orcid":false,"family":"Muljono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Semarang 50131, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"family":"Purwanto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Semarang 50131, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Moch Arief","family":"Soeleman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Semarang 50131, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). 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