{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T13:14:29Z","timestamp":1785762869363,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]],"date-time":"2025-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100020884","name":"Agencia Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["ANID \u2013 MILENIO \u2013 NCS2022_026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID \u2013 MILENIO \u2013 NCS2022_026"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100020884","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011033","name":"Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2019-108419RB-100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-108419RB-100"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011033","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates the developmental trajectories of transcription and oral language skills in kindergarten students over the course of an academic year, with a focus on the influence of executive functions (EF) and home literacy practices (HLP). Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses revealed significant growth in transcription skills, with both EF and independent home literacy practices positively influencing baseline transcription scores. The interaction between independent home literacy practices and formal literacy practices at home further enhanced transcription skill development. In contrast, oral language skills were not influenced by either HLP or EF. These results suggest that EF plays a more prominent role in transcription development than oral language skills in early childhood, especially in transparent orthographic systems. The findings highlight the importance of cognitive and environmental factors in early literacy development, suggesting implications for educational practices, particularly in fostering effective home literacy environments<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence13120163","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T09:36:39Z","timestamp":1765791399000},"page":"163","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Developmental Trajectories of Transcription and Oral Language Skills in Kindergarten Students: The Influence of Executive Functions and Home Literacy Practices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4917-7506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Balade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Campus Guajara, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 San Crist\u00f3bal de La Laguna, Spain"},{"name":"Millennium Nucleus for the Science of Learning (MiNSoL), Linares 3582979, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9929-9767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Millennium Nucleus for the Science of Learning (MiNSoL), Linares 3582979, Chile"},{"name":"Facultad de Educaci\u00f3n, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de la Sant\u00edsima Concepci\u00f3n, Concepci\u00f3n 4090541, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7466-8340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan E.","family":"Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Campus Guajara, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 San Crist\u00f3bal de La Laguna, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2203","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-021-10133-w","article-title":"Characteristics of the preschool home literacy environment which predict writing skills at school","volume":"34","author":"Adams","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1006\/jecp.1996.0052","article-title":"The Development of Spelling Procedures in French-Speaking, Normal and Reading-Disabled Children: Effects of Frequency and Lexicality","volume":"63","author":"Alegria","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390701562818","article-title":"Executive functions for reading and writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia","volume":"30","author":"Altemeier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2001\/017)","article-title":"Theory-Guided Spelling Assessment and Intervention","volume":"32","author":"Apel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.58680\/rte201728980","article-title":"Forum: Taking the Long View on Writing Development","volume":"51","author":"Applebee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Research in the Teaching of English"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9817.2009.01429.x","article-title":"Writing with young children: A comparison of paternal and maternal guidance","volume":"33","author":"Aram","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Reading"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/S0885-2014(01)00067-3","article-title":"Mother\u2013child joint writing in low SES","volume":"16","author":"Aram","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cognitive Development"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1353\/mpq.2002.0005","article-title":"Mother-Child Joint Writing and Storybook Reading: Relations with Literacy Among Low SES Kindergartners","volume":"48","author":"Aram","year":"2002","journal-title":"Merrill-Palmer Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1076\/chin.5.2.115.3167","article-title":"Identification and Description of New Tests of Executive Functioning in Children","volume":"5","author":"Archibald","year":"1999","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-015-9617-5","article-title":"The effect of language specific factors on early written composition: The role of spelling, oral language and text generation skills in a shallow orthography","volume":"29","author":"Dockrell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.2217\/fnl.10.22","article-title":"Inter-relationships among behavioral markers, genes, brain and treatment in dyslexia and dysgraphia","volume":"5","author":"Berninger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Future Neurology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01027151","article-title":"Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing","volume":"4","author":"Berninger","year":"1992","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.2307\/1511269","article-title":"Coordinating transcription and text generation in working memory during composing: Automatic and constructive processes","volume":"22","author":"Berninger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Learning Disability Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1097\/00011363-200020040-00007","article-title":"Development of Language by Hand and Its Connections with Language by Ear, Mouth, and Eye","volume":"20","author":"Berninger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Topics in Language Disorders"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01026911","article-title":"Developmental skills related to writing and reading acquisition in the intermediate grades","volume":"6","author":"Berninger","year":"1994","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Berninger, Virginia W., and Chanquoy, Lucile (2012). What writing is and how it changes across early and middle childhood development: A multidisciplinary perspective. Writing, Psychology Press."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"MacArthur, Charles A., Graham, Steve, and Fitzgerald, Jill (2006). Implications of Advancements in Brain Research and Technology for Writing Development, Writing Instruction, and Educational Evolution. Handbook of Writing Research, The Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"65","article-title":"Influenza dello sviluppo lessicale sulla correttezza ortografica: Effetti di un trattamento su alunni di terza e quarta elementare","volume":"4","author":"Bigozzi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psicologia clinica dello sviluppo"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bingham, Gary E., and Mason, Amber (2018). Contexts of African American Children\u2019s Early Writing Development: Considerations of Parental Education, Parenting Style, Parental Beliefs, and Home Literacy Environments. Academic Socialization of Young Black and Latino Children, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-04486-2_4"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010814-015221","article-title":"School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach","volume":"66","author":"Blair","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.27.1.153","article-title":"Socioeconomic Status and Class in Studies of Fertility and Health in Developing Countries","volume":"27","author":"Bollen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annual Review of Sociology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bronfenbrenner, Urie, and Morris, Pamela A. (2006). The Bioecological Model of Human Development. Handbook of Child Psychology: Theoretical Models of Human Development, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [6th ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470147658.chpsy0114"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.05.006","article-title":"A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children","volume":"40","author":"Brydges","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.37.4.4","article-title":"Relations of the home literacy environment (HLE) to the development of reading-related abilities: A one-year longitudinal study","volume":"37","author":"Burgess","year":"2002","journal-title":"Reading Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/10862969209547779","article-title":"Parent-Child Interaction in a Letter-Writing Context","volume":"24","author":"Burns","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Reading Behavior"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"79","article-title":"Procesos Fonol\u00f3gicos Expl\u00edcitos e Impl\u00edcitos, Lectura y Dislexia","volume":"11","author":"Citoler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Revista Neuropsicolog\u00eda, Neuropsiquiatr\u00eda y Neurociencias"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219417721182","article-title":"First-Grade Cognitive Predictors of Writing Disabilities in Grades 2 Through 4 Elementary School Students","volume":"51","author":"Costa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-017-0670-3","article-title":"Different indicators of socioeconomic status and their relative importance as determinants of health in old age","volume":"16","author":"Fors","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal for Equity in Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.5430\/elr.v4n1p49","article-title":"Causal Relations among Executive Functions and Academic Skills from Preschool to End of First Grade","volume":"4","author":"Davidse","year":"2015","journal-title":"English Linguistics Research"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-6566(85)90023-6","article-title":"The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality","volume":"19","author":"Deci","year":"1985","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Personality"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.125.6.692","article-title":"The undermining effect is a reality after all\u2014Extrinsic rewards, task interest, and self-determination: Reply to Eisenberger, Pierce, and Cameron (1999) and Lepper, Henderlong, and Gingras (1999)","volume":"125","author":"Deci","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2008.01.005","article-title":"Complexity and lexicality effects on the acquisition of Spanish spelling","volume":"19","author":"Defior","year":"2009","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1330","article-title":"Written Spelling to Dictation: Sound-To-Spelling Regularity Affects Both Writing Latencies and Durations","volume":"32","author":"Delattre","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive Functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Dickinson, David K., and Tabors, Patton O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young Children Learning at Home and School, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1080\/10409289.2011.636729","article-title":"Associations between low-income children\u2019s fine motor skills in preschool and academic performance in second grade","volume":"24","author":"Dinehart","year":"2013","journal-title":"Early Education & Development"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1080\/10705511.2014.915373","article-title":"A Comparison of Diagonal Weighted Least Squares Robust Estimation Techniques for Ordinal Data","volume":"21","author":"DiStefano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-015-9558-z","article-title":"The contribution of executive functions to narrative writing in fourth grade children","volume":"28","author":"Drijbooms","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-016-9670-8","article-title":"How executive functions predict development in syntactic complexity of narrative writing in the upper elementary grades","volume":"30","author":"Drijbooms","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1097\/00011363-200020030-00005","article-title":"Learning To Read and Learning To Spell","volume":"20","author":"Ehri","year":"2000","journal-title":"Topics in Language Disorders"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Field, Andy (2013). Regression. Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics, Sage."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filipe, Marisa G., Veloso, Andreia S., and Frota, S\u00f3nia (2023). Executive Functions and Language Skills in Preschool Children: The Unique Contribution of Verbal Working Memory and Cognitive Flexibility. Brain Sciences, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13030470"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1080\/13682820701778069","article-title":"Contribution of phonological and broader language skills to literacy","volume":"43","author":"Fraser","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garson, G. David (2013). Hierarchical Linear Modeling: Guide and Applications, Sage.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483384450"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gelman, Andrew, and Hill, Jennifer (2007). Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel\/Hierarchical Models, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.arm"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748532","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/748532","article-title":"Child and Home Predictors of Children\u2019s Name Writing","volume":"2012","author":"Gerde","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Development Research"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(94)90068-X","article-title":"The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 312\u20137 years old on a stroop- like day-night test","volume":"53","author":"Gerstadt","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-012-9395-2","article-title":"Writing: Importance, development, and instruction","volume":"26","author":"Graham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1086\/681964","article-title":"Research-Based Writing Practices and the Common Core","volume":"115","author":"Graham","year":"2015","journal-title":"The Elementary School Journal"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1080\/00220679809597574","article-title":"Development of handwriting speed and legibility in grades 1\u20139","volume":"92","author":"Graham","year":"1998","journal-title":"The Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.89.1.170","article-title":"Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach","volume":"89","author":"Graham","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1177\/0265659012456029","article-title":"Teaching Story Grammar Components to Increase Oral Narrative Ability: A Group Intervention Study","volume":"28","author":"Green","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Language Teaching and Therapy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035984","article-title":"Text comprehension mediates morphological awareness, syntactic processing, and working memory in predicting Chinese written composition performance","volume":"106","author":"Guan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/10409289.2020.1746618","article-title":"The Role of Home Literacy Practices in Kindergarten Children\u2019s Early Writing Development: A One-Year Longitudinal Study","volume":"32","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Early Education and Development"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Hair, Joseph F., Black, William C., Babin, Barry J., and Anderson, Rolph E. (2009). Multivariate Data Analysis, Pearson Prentice Hall. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Hall, Nigel (2000). Literacy, Play, and Authentic Experience. Play and Literacy in Early Childhood, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1080\/0300443032000153543","article-title":"Relationships between parent-teaching activities and emergent literacy in preschool children","volume":"174","author":"Haney","year":"2004","journal-title":"Early Child Development and Care"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1353\/mpq.2012.0012","article-title":"Differential Contributions of Three Parenting Dimensions to Preschool Literacy and Social Skills in a Middle-Income Sample","volume":"58","author":"Hindman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Merrill-Palmer Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Holster, Jacob D. (2022). Network Analysis. Introduction to R for Data Science: A LISA 2020 Guidebook, Bookdown."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-010-9263-x","article-title":"Concurrent and longitudinal neuropsychological contributors to written language expression in first and second grade students","volume":"24","author":"Hooper","year":"2011","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10705519909540118","article-title":"Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives","volume":"6","author":"Hu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Incognito, Oriana, Mercugliano, Alice, and Bigozzi, Lucia (2023). Influence of Lexical Development on Reading and Spelling Skills: Effects of Enhancement on Second-Grade Children in Primary School. Children, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/children10081416"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-018-9928-4","article-title":"Transcription skills and written composition in Spanish beginning writers: Pen and keyboard modes","volume":"32","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"397","article-title":"Identifying kindergarteners at-risk of writing difficulties based on foundational literacy skills","volume":"38","author":"Balade","year":"2024a","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, Juan E., Balade, Jennifer, and Marco, Isaac (2025). A Tablet-Based Curriculum-Based Measurement Protocol for Kindergarten Writing. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 216.","DOI":"10.3791\/66541"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, Juan E., Balade, Jennifer, Garc\u00eda, Eduardo, and Chen, Becky Xi (2024b). Understanding the pathways to text generation: A longitudinal study on executive functions, oral language, and transcription skills from kindergarten to first grade. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0315748"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.91.1.44","article-title":"Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and students\u2019 ability to generate written text","volume":"91","author":"Jones","year":"1999","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1002\/icd.1827","article-title":"Evidence for Causal Relations between Executive Functions and Alphabetic Skills Based on Longitudinal Data","volume":"23","author":"Kegel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infant and Child Development"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Kenny, David A. (2025, June 22). Measuring Model Fit. Available online: https:\/\/davidakenny.net\/cm\/fit.htm."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-007-9103-9","article-title":"The relationship between home literacy practices and developmental trajectories of emergent literacy and conventional literacy skills for Korean children","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2011.06.004","article-title":"Componential skills of beginning writing: An exploratory study","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Learning and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1111\/bjep.12330","article-title":"Structural relations of language and cognitive skills, and topic knowledge to written composition: A test of the direct and indirect effects model of writing","volume":"90","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000129","article-title":"Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW)","volume":"109","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-018-9913-y","article-title":"Unpacking pathways using the direct and indirect effects model of writing (DIEW) and the contributions of higher order cognitive skills to writing","volume":"32","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000564","article-title":"Expanding the Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Writing (DIEW): Reading\u2013Writing Relations, and Dynamic Relations as a Function of Measurement\/Dimensions of Written Composition","volume":"114","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Kline, Rex B. (2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, Guilford Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2023.101532","article-title":"The Role of Peers\u2019 Executive Function and Classroom Quality in Preschoolers\u2019 School Readiness","volume":"86","author":"Korucu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Levin, Iris, Share, David L., and Shatil, Evelyn (2013). A qualitative-quantitative study of preschool writing: Its development and contribution to school literacy. The Science of Writing, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031391","article-title":"Modeling writing development: Contribution of transcription and self-regulation to Portuguese students\u2019 text generation quality","volume":"105","author":"Limpo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/bjep.12020","article-title":"Children\u2019s high-level writing skills: Development of planning and revising and their contribution to writing quality","volume":"84","author":"Limpo","year":"2014","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Llaurado, Anna, and Dockrell, Julie E. (2020). The Impact of Orthography on Text Production in Three Languages: Catalan, English, and Spanish. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00878"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.36.5.596","article-title":"Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study","volume":"36","author":"Lonigan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1177\/0091552113484580","article-title":"Self-Regulated Strategy Instruction in Developmental Writing: A Design Research Project","volume":"41","author":"MacArthur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Community College Review"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-009-9200-z","article-title":"Letter-name letter-sound and phonological awareness: Evidence from Greek-speaking kindergarten children","volume":"24","author":"Manolitsis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Mirman, Daniel (2014). Growth Curve Analysis and Visualization Using R, CRC Press, Taylor & Fracis Group."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1006\/cogp.1999.0734","article-title":"The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex \u201cFrontal Lobe\u201d Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis","volume":"41","author":"Miyake","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/09575140903196715","article-title":"Parental strategies to scaffold emergent writing skills in the pre-school child within the home environment","volume":"30","author":"Neumann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Early Years"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2012.10.001","article-title":"Home Literacy Environment and the beginning of reading and spelling","volume":"38","author":"Niklas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Brien, Beth A., Mohamed, Malikka Begum Habib, Arshad, Nur Artika, and Lim, Nicole Cybil (2020). The Impact of Different Writing Systems on Children\u2019s Spelling Error Profiles: Alphabetic, Akshara, and Hanzi Cases. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00870"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1590\/1982-43272458201409","article-title":"Executive Functions, Oral Language and Writing in Preschool Children: Development and Correlations","volume":"24","author":"Pazeto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Paid\u00e9ia"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1111\/bjep.12091","article-title":"The relationship between oral and written narratives: A three-year longitudinal study of narrative cohesion, coherence, and structure","volume":"85","author":"Pinto","year":"2015","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03173475","article-title":"Emergent literacy and learning to write: A predictive model for italian language","volume":"24","author":"Pinto","year":"2009","journal-title":"European Journal of Psychology of Education"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2024.01.003","article-title":"Unpacking the relations of transcription and oral language to written composition in kindergarten children","volume":"67","author":"Puranik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Early Childhood Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2017.10.004","article-title":"Home literacy practices and preschool children\u2019s emergent writing skills: An initial investigation","volume":"42","author":"Puranik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Early Childhood Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Raudenbush, Stephen W., and Bryk, Anthony S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods, Sage."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-021-10224-8","article-title":"The relationship of handwriting ability and literacy in kindergarten: A systematic review","volume":"35","author":"Ray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"R Core Team (2021). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.r-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rijlaarsdam, Gert, Van Den Bergh, Huub, Couzijn, Michel, Janssen, Tanja, Braaksma, Martine, Tillema, Marion, Van Steendam, Elke, and Raedts, Mariet (2012). Writing. APA Educational Psychology Handbook, Vol 3: Application to Learning and Teaching, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/13275-009"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-022-10256-8","article-title":"The role of transcription and executive functions in writing: A longitudinal study in the transition from primary to intermediate Grades","volume":"35","author":"Rocha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219416633863","article-title":"Predicting Handwriting Difficulties Through Spelling Processes","volume":"50","author":"Villarroel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez, Cristina, Jim\u00e9nez, Juan E., and Balade, Jennifer (2024). The Impact of Oral Language and Transcription Skills on Early Writing Production in Kindergarteners: Productivity and Quality. Early Childhood Education Journal.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10643-024-01670-4"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2023.2170998","article-title":"The relationship between executive functions and writing in children: A systematic review","volume":"30","author":"Ruffini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-019-09979-y","article-title":"The role of executive functions and transcription skills in writing: A cross-sectional study across 7 years of schooling","volume":"33","author":"Salas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/0300443001630107","article-title":"Literacy Development in the Family Context","volume":"163","author":"Saracho","year":"2000","journal-title":"Early Child Development and Care"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1006\/drev.1994.1010","article-title":"On the Efficacy of Reading to Preschoolers","volume":"14","author":"Scarborough","year":"1994","journal-title":"Developmental Review"},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Seymour, Philip H. K. (2007). Early Reading Development in European Orthographies. The Science of Reading: A Handbook, Blackwell Publishing Ltd."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1348\/000712603321661859","article-title":"Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies","volume":"94","author":"Seymour","year":"2003","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00417","article-title":"Parental Involvement in the Development of Children\u2019s Reading Skill: A Five-Year Longitudinal Study","volume":"73","author":"LeFevre","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.24.1.28","article-title":"Development of grammatical-sensitivity, phonological, and short-term memory skills in normally achieving and learning disabled children","volume":"24","author":"Siegel","year":"1988","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Snijders, Tom AB, and Bosker, Roel (2011). Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modeling, Sage. Available online: https:\/\/www.google.co.uk\/books\/edition\/Multilevel_Analysis\/N1BQvcomDdQC?hl=en&gbpv=0."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stone, Bryant M. (2021). The Ethical Use of Fit Indices in Structural Equation Modeling: Recommendations for Psychologists. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.783226"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2020.01.003","article-title":"The early writing skills of children identified as at-risk for literacy difficulties","volume":"51","author":"Thomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Early Childhood Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Thurstone, L. L., and Yela, M. (1985). CARAS-Test de Percepci\u00f3n de diferencias [FACES-Perception of Differences Test], TEA Ediciones."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1080\/10824669.2022.2098132","article-title":"Cognitive flexibility in beginning decoding and encoding","volume":"28","author":"Vadasy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR)"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2024.102272","article-title":"The contributions of executive functioning to handwritten and keyboarded compositions in Year 2 children","volume":"77","author":"Valcan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-006-9046-6","article-title":"Which components of working memory are important in the writing process?","volume":"20","author":"Vanderberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-010-9266-7","article-title":"Modeling the development of written language","volume":"24","author":"Wagner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, David (2005). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Pearson.","DOI":"10.53841\/bpstest.2004.wisc4"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2015.04.008","article-title":"Multicollinearity in hierarchical linear models","volume":"53","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Social Science Research"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2006.46","article-title":"The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children","volume":"1","author":"Zelazo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature Protocols"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1086\/709979","article-title":"Preschool children\u2019s interest in early writing activities and perceptions of writing experience","volume":"121","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elementary School Journal"}],"container-title":["Journal of Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/13\/12\/163\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T05:11:51Z","timestamp":1766121111000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/13\/12\/163"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]},"references-count":121,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jintelligence13120163"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jintelligence13120163","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3200"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3200","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]}}}