{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T11:35:59Z","timestamp":1791891359356,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fondazione Citta\u2019 della Speranza"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Executive function (EF) impairments are common in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and have a significant impact on learning and daily life. Cognitive training programs aimed at strengthening EFs may show limited feasibility and generalization. However, recent studies suggest that ecological, curriculum-embedded problem-solving activities may be more promising. This multiple-baseline single-case study tested the feasibility and efficacy of a short computational thinking and coding intervention based on problem-solving for children with sickle cell disease, a hemoglobinopathy associated with cognitive decline and EF deficits. The trial followed the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) Version 5 guidelines for single-case research. Three 7\u20138-year-old children with lower-range IQ (71\u201382) and EF impairments completed 11 coding sessions over 5\u20136 weeks using code.org, with pre\/post assessments of non-verbal EF (planning, inhibition, and switching), and verbal EF skills (verbal working memory, phonological fluency and semantic fluency). Results showed 100% adherence to the intervention, significant improvement in coding (IRD range = 0.69\u20130.79), with positive transfer effects on nonverbal planning skills (gains &gt; 2 z-scores) and also verbal fluency (z-score gains ranging from 0.47 to 1.04). Inter-individual variability in effects was related to the child\u2019s individual cognitive profile. Findings suggest that problem-solving, coding-based activities can be feasible and potentially beneficial for children with significant EF impairments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence14040055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T09:26:12Z","timestamp":1775121972000},"page":"55","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Using Coding to Improve Executive Functioning in Children with Sickle Cell Disease: A Multiple-Baseline Single-Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9869-9440","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Arf\u00e9","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy"},{"name":"Human Inspired Technologies (HIT) Research Center, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Elisa delle","family":"Fave","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Women\u2019s and Child\u2019s Health, Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera-University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Montuori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2360-9965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Ronconi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9797-0457","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaella","family":"Colombatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Women\u2019s and Child\u2019s Health, Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera-University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, Y., Kent, S. C., and Keller-Margulis, M. (2023). Reading-to-writing mediation model of higher-order literacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1033970"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1037\/cpp0000313","article-title":"Computerized cognitive training in pediatric sickle cell disease: A randomized controlled pilot study","volume":"8","author":"Allen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11141","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65525-9","article-title":"Executive functions predict verbal fluency scores in healthy participants","volume":"10","author":"Amunts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsy005","article-title":"Selective difficulties in lexical retrieval and nonverbal executive functioning in children with HbSS sickle cell disease","volume":"43","author":"Montanaro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Psychology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arf\u00e9, B., Vardanega, T., Montuori, C., and Lavanga, M. (2019). Coding in primary grades boosts children\u2019s executive functions. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02713"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103807","article-title":"The effects of coding on children\u2019s planning and inhibition skills","volume":"148","author":"Vardanega","year":"2020","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Associazione Italiana di Ematologia e Oncologia Pediatrica (AIEOP) (2025, August 21). Recommendations for the management of sickle cell disease in childhood in Italy, Available online: https:\/\/www.aieop.org\/web\/aggiornamento-raccomandazioni-malattia-drepanocitica\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-018-9366-z","article-title":"Educational robotics in down syndrome: A feasibility study","volume":"24","author":"Bargagna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Technology, Knowledge and Learning"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.10.020","article-title":"Computational thinking and tinkering: Exploration of an early childhood robotics curriculum","volume":"72","author":"Bers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bisiacchi, P. S., Cendron, M., Gugliotta, M., Tressoldi, P. E., and Vio, C. (2005). BVN 5-11\u2014Batteria di valutazione neuropsicologica per l\u2019et\u00e0 evolutiva, Erickson."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1403","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1403","article-title":"Educating executive function","volume":"8","author":"Blair","year":"2017","journal-title":"WIREs Cognitive Science"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Bocconi, S., Chioccariello, A., Kampylis, P., Dagien\u0117, V., Wastiau, P., Engelhardt, K., Earp, J., Horvath, M. A., Jasut\u0117, E., Malagoli, C., Masiulionyt\u0117-Dagien\u0117, V., and Stupurien\u0117, G. (2022). Reviewing computational thinking in compulsory education, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-022-09574-z","article-title":"Far transfer effects of trainings on executive functions in neurodevelopmental disorders: A systematic review and metanalysis","volume":"34","author":"Bombonato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychology Review"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518687","DOI":"10.1080\/23311908.2018.1518687","article-title":"Interpreting Kendall\u2019s Tau and Tau-U for single-case experimental designs","volume":"5","author":"Brossart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogent Psychology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1080\/09602011.2013.868361","article-title":"Incorporating nonoverlap indices with visual analysis for quantifying intervention effectiveness in single-case experimental designs","volume":"24","author":"Brossart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychological Rehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1352\/1944-7558-121.3.169","article-title":"Comparing single case design overlap-based effect size metrics from studies examining speech generating device interventions","volume":"121","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1204529","article-title":"Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old","volume":"333","author":"Diamond","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2015.11.005","article-title":"Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not","volume":"18","author":"Diamond","year":"2016","journal-title":"Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Lieto, M. C., Castro, E., Pecini, C., Inguaggiato, E., Cecchi, F., Dario, P., Cioni, G., and Sgandurra, G. (2020a). Improving executive functions at school in children with special needs by educational robotics. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02813"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.01.018","article-title":"Educational robotics intervention on executive functions in preschool children: A pilot study","volume":"71","author":"Inguaggiato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Lieto, M. C., Pecini, C., Castro, E., Inguaggiato, E., Cecchi, F., Dario, P., Cioni, G., and Sgandurra, G. (2020b). Empowering executive functions in 5- and 6-year-old typically developing children through educational robotics: An RCT study. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.03084"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsx115","article-title":"Altered neurophysiological processing of auditory attention in preschool children with sickle cell disease","volume":"43","author":"Downes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Psychology"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Fancello, G. S., Vio, C., and Cianchetti, C. (2021). ToL, torre di londra. Test di valutazione delle funzioni esecutive (pianificazione e problem solving), Erickson."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/17489539.2021.1937851","article-title":"Selecting the proper Tau-U measure for single-case experimental designs: Development and application of a decision flowchart","volume":"15","author":"Fingerhut","year":"2021","journal-title":"Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2014.918630","article-title":"Proficiency and control in verbal fluency performance across the lifespan for monolinguals and bilinguals","volume":"30","author":"Friesen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Language, Cognition and Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2018.03.003","article-title":"Methodological standards in single-case experimental design: Raising the bar","volume":"79","author":"Ganz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Gugliotta, M., Bisiacchi, P., Cendron, M., Tressoldi, P. E., and Vio, C. (2009). BVN 12-18 batteria di valutazione neuropsicologica per l\u2019adolescenza, Erickson."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsab030","article-title":"A randomized controlled trial of working memory training in pediatric sickle cell disease","volume":"46","author":"Hardy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Psychology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.26019","article-title":"Feasibility of home-based computerized working memory training with children and adolescents with sickle cell disease","volume":"63","author":"Hardy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatric Blood & Cancer"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e30178","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.30178","article-title":"Individual-level behavioral interventions to support optimal development of children with sickle cell disease: A systematic review","volume":"70","author":"Hoyt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatric Blood & Cancer"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e31942","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.31942","article-title":"Empowering minds: A pilot study to assess feasibility of ADAPT-SCD to enhance cognitive function in adolescents and young adults with sickle cell disease","volume":"72","author":"Hurley","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pediatric Blood & Cancer"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbmt.2017.09.004","article-title":"Neurocognitive dysfunction in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: Expert review from the late effects and quality of life working committee of the center for international blood and marrow transplant research and complications and quality of life working party of the european society for blood and marrow transplantation","volume":"24","author":"Kelly","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000841","article-title":"Writing fluency: Its relations with language, cognitive, and transcription skills, and writing quality using longitudinal data from kindergarten to grade 2","volume":"116","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Korkman, M., Kirk, U. E., and Kemp, S. (2007). NEPSY-II: A developmental neuropsychological assessment, The Psychological Corporation."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1111\/bjh.18041","article-title":"Neurocognitive risk in sickle cell disease: Utilizing neuropsychology services to manage cognitive symptoms and functional limitations","volume":"197","author":"Longoria","year":"2022","journal-title":"British Journal of Haematoly"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1111\/ldrp.12184","article-title":"Using single\u2013Case research designs to examine the effects of interventions in special education","volume":"33","author":"Maggin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities Research & Practice"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2022.104242","article-title":"Do comorbid symptoms discriminate between autism spectrum disorder, ADHD and nonverbal learning disability?","volume":"126","author":"Mammarella","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104961","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104961","article-title":"The cognitive effects of computational thinking: A systematic review and meta-analytic study","volume":"210","author":"Montuori","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montuori, C., Pozzan, G., Padova, C., Ronconi, L., Vardanega, T., and Arf\u00e9, B. (2023). Combined unplugged and educational robotics training to promote computational thinking and cognitive abilities in preschoolers. Education Sciences, 13, (9).","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci13090858"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2025.100747","article-title":"Age-related effects of coding interventions","volume":"44","author":"Montuori","year":"2025","journal-title":"International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2018.06.009","article-title":"Executive function deficits in kindergarten predict repeated academic difficulties across elementary school","volume":"46","author":"Morgan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Early Childhood Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2016.10.002","article-title":"The role of test-retest reliability in measuring individual and group differences in executive functioning","volume":"274","author":"Paap","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience Methods"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1007\/s10864-012-9153-1","article-title":"Bottom-up analysis of single-case research designs","volume":"21","author":"Parker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Education"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1177\/0145445511399147","article-title":"Effect size in single-case research: A review of nine nonoverlap techniques","volume":"35","author":"Parker","year":"2011a","journal-title":"Behavior Modification"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2010.08.006","article-title":"Combining nonoverlap and trend for single-case research: Tau-U","volume":"42","author":"Parker","year":"2011b","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e052338","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-052338","article-title":"Minimal clinically important difference in means in vulnerable populations: Challenges and solutions","volume":"11","author":"Peacock","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10864-012-9154-0","article-title":"Examining estimates of effect using non-overlap of all pairs in multiple baseline studies of academic intervention","volume":"21","author":"Karich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Education"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsz031","article-title":"Cognitive function in sickle cell disease across domains, cerebral infarct status, and the lifespan: A meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Prussien","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Psychology"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Pustejovsky, J. E., Chen, M., Grekov, P., and Swan, D. M. (2025, August 21). Single case ES: A calculator for single-case effect sizes indices (Version 0.7.3) [Computer software], Available online: https:\/\/jepusto.github.io\/SingleCaseES\/."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8578.12091","article-title":"Effect sizes as result interpretation aids in single-subject experimental research: Description and application of four nonoverlap methods","volume":"42","author":"Rakap","year":"2015","journal-title":"British Journal of Special Education"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1002\/ajh.27596","article-title":"Residual cerebrovascular morbidity despite treatment in pediatric sickle cell disease highlights opportunities for earlier, intensified monitoring and treatment","volume":"100","author":"Reggiani","year":"2025","journal-title":"American Journal of Hematology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1177\/09727531221108871","article-title":"Neurocognitive changes in sickle cell disease: A comprehensive review","volume":"29","author":"Sahu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annals of Neurosciences"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/27.8.739","article-title":"Cognitive functioning in children with sickle cell disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Schatz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Psychology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1002\/mrdd.20115","article-title":"Sickle cell disease as a neurodevelopmental disorder","volume":"12","author":"Schatz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2024.105962","article-title":"Executive functions and problem-solving-The contribution of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility to science problem-solving performance in elementary school students","volume":"244","author":"Reuter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000314","article-title":"The cognitive benefits of learning computer programming: A meta-analysis of transfer effects","volume":"111","author":"Scherer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2017.02.019","article-title":"Are semantic and phonological fluency based on the same or distinct sets of cognitive processes? Insights from factor analyses in healthy adults and stroke patients","volume":"99","author":"Schmidt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scionti, N., Cavallero, M., Zogmaister, C., and Marzocchi, G. M. (2020). Is cognitive training effective for improving executive functions in preschoolers? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02812"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2016.1238474","article-title":"Working memory in children with neurocognitive effects from sickle cell disease: Contributions of the central executive and processing speed","volume":"41","author":"Smith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Developmental Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2018.01.007","article-title":"Social validity in single-case research: A systematic literature review of prevalence and application","volume":"74","author":"Snodgrass","year":"2018","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2042","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000005644","article-title":"White matter integrity and processing speed in sickle cell anemia","volume":"90","author":"Stotesbury","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000195","article-title":"The efficacy of different interventions to foster children\u2019s executive function skills: A series of meta-analyses","volume":"145","author":"Takacs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/arc0000026","article-title":"The single-case reporting guideline in behavioural interventions (SCRIBE) 2016 statement","volume":"4","author":"Tate","year":"2016","journal-title":"Archives of Scientific Psychology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Traverso, L., Viterbori, P., and Usai, M. C. (2019). Effectiveness of an executive function training in Italian preschool educational services and far transfer effects to pre-academic skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02053"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1097\/MOH.0000000000000136","article-title":"Update of hematopoietic cell transplantation for sickle cell disease","volume":"22","author":"Walters","year":"2015","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Hematology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033659","article-title":"Test\u2013retest reliability of behavioral measures of impulsive choice, impulsive action, and inattention","volume":"21","author":"Weafer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children, fourth edition (WISC-IV), Pearson. APA PsycTests.","DOI":"10.1037\/t15174-000"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"What Works Clearinghouse (2025, August 21). What works clearinghouse procedures and standards handbook, version 5.0, Available online: https:\/\/ies.ed.gov\/ncee\/wwc\/Handbooks."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1145\/1118178.1118215","article-title":"Computational thinking","volume":"49","author":"Wing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Communications of the ACM"}],"container-title":["Journal of Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/14\/4\/55\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T09:46:31Z","timestamp":1775123191000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/14\/4\/55"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["jintelligence14040055"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jintelligence14040055","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3200"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3200","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]}}}