{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T13:12:56Z","timestamp":1777900376787,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been associated with a range of cognitive alterations; however, the relationship between PTSD and intelligence remains unclear. The aim of this systematic review was to examine potential differences in intelligence associated with exposure to traumatic events and\/or a diagnosis of PTSD in adults aged 18 years and older. A systematic search was conducted across three major academic databases\u2014PsycINFO, MEDLINE, and Web of Science\u2014to identify empirical studies assessing intelligence or closely related cognitive constructs in individuals with PTSD or a history of trauma exposure. After applying predefined inclusion criteria, 12 studies were included in the review. Intelligence was assessed using various psychometric instruments, encompassing both global intelligence measures and specific domains such as verbal intelligence and vocabulary. Overall, the findings consistently indicated a negative association between intelligence and PTSD, with lower intelligence scores more frequently observed among individuals with PTSD or significant traumatic exposure. Due to the correlational design of the studies included, causal relationships cannot be established. Consequently, it remains unclear whether intelligence is affected by PTSD or whether higher intelligence may serve as a protective factor against the development or severity of the disorder. From an intelligence research perspective, these findings highlight cognitive ability as a key factor associated with vulnerability and resilience in trauma-related psychopathology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence14050073","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T10:15:27Z","timestamp":1777630527000},"page":"73","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Role of Intelligence in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Development: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4498-6900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcos","family":"Lacombe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela Internacional de Doctorado (EIDUNED), Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2666-4062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana M.","family":"P\u00e9rez-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Personality, Assessment and Psychological Treatments, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3689-5999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabel","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Ucl\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Personality, Assessment and Psychological Treatments, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Jowf, G. I., Ahmed, Z. T., Reijnders, R. A., de Nijs, L., and Eijssen, L. M. T. (2025). To predict, prevent, and manage post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A review of pathophysiology, treatment, and biomarkers. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24, (6).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065238"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22630","article-title":"Homicide as a source of posttraumatic stress? A meta-analysis of the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder after committing homicide","volume":"34","author":"Longobardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1037\/a0017829","article-title":"Beyond resilience and PTSD: Mapping the heterogeneity of response to potential trauma","volume":"4","author":"Bonanno","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.68.5.748","article-title":"Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults","volume":"68","author":"Brewin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20291","article-title":"Learning and memory impairment in PTSD: Relationship to depression","volume":"25","author":"Burriss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Depression and Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.161.2.195","article-title":"Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability: Implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress","volume":"161","author":"Charney","year":"2004","journal-title":"The American Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colom, R., and Ma, P. C. S. (2024). Cognitive ability, personality, and psychopathology: A stormy relationship. Journal of Intelligence, 12, (10).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence12100096"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100353","article-title":"Intelligence","volume":"63","author":"Deary","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959117","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2021.1959117","article-title":"Trauma on duty: Cognitive functioning among police officers with and without posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)","volume":"12","author":"Desrochers","year":"2021","journal-title":"European Journal of Psychotraumatology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durao, M., Etchezahar, E., Albal\u00e1 Genol, M. \u00c1., and Muller, M. (2023). Fear of missing out, emotional intelligence and attachment in older adults in Argentina. Journal of Intelligence, 11, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11020022"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/15434610590913612","article-title":"Learning problems, impaired short-term memory, and general intelligence related to disease severity and duration in posttraumatic stress disorder patients","volume":"8","author":"Emdad","year":"2005","journal-title":"Stress, Trauma, and Crisis"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Gardner, H. (1987). Estructuras de la mente: La teor\u00eda de las m\u00faltiples inteligencias [Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences], Fondo de Cultura Econ\u00f3mica."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2020.1781932","article-title":"The association between neurocognition and sexual abuse within a children\u2019s psychiatric inpatient program","volume":"36","author":"Gervasio","year":"2022","journal-title":"The Clinical Neuropsychologist"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.115.3.484","article-title":"Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"115","author":"Gilbertson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-021-04312-8","article-title":"Non-verbal cognitive development, learning, and symptoms of PTSD in 3- to 6-year-old refugee children","volume":"181","author":"Hahnefeld","year":"2022","journal-title":"European Journal of Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Higgins, J. P. T., and Green, S. (2011). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (Version 5.1.0), The Cochrane Collaboration. Available online: www.cochrane-handbook.org."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.64.3.361","article-title":"Pretrauma cognitive ability and risk for posttraumatic stress disorder: A twin study","volume":"64","author":"Kremen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Archives of General Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.66.2.323","article-title":"Lower precombat intelligence is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"66","author":"Macklin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00041.2006","article-title":"Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain","volume":"87","author":"McEwen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiological Reviews"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20867","article-title":"Risk factors and posttraumatic stress disorder: Are they especially predictive following exposure to less severe stressors?","volume":"28","author":"McNally","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depressive and Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.152.6.936","article-title":"Association between intelligence and the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among Vietnam combat veterans","volume":"152","author":"McNally","year":"1995","journal-title":"American Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.51.2.77","article-title":"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns","volume":"51","author":"Neisser","year":"1996","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogata, K. (2017). Maltreatment related trauma symptoms affect academic achievement through cognitive functioning: A preliminary examination in Japan. Journal of Intelligence, 5, (4).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence5040032"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2014.01.003","article-title":"Executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the influence of comorbid depression","volume":"112","author":"Olff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Learning and Memory"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.1.52","article-title":"Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis","volume":"129","author":"Ozer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2029","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713002535","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Rock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychological Medicine"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silverio, S. A., Lyons, M. T., and Burton, S. P. (2023). Dangerously intelligent: A call for re-evaluating psychopathy using perceptions of intelligence. Journal of Intelligence, 11, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11020025"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.02.037","article-title":"The influence of pre-deployment cognitive ability on post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and trajectories: The Danish USPER follow-up study of Afghanistan veterans","volume":"196","author":"Andersen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Affective Disorders"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.2307\/1412107","article-title":"\u201cGeneral intelligence,\u201d objectively determined and measured","volume":"15","author":"Spearman","year":"1904","journal-title":"The American Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of intelligence, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327965pli1501_01","article-title":"Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence","volume":"15","author":"Tedeschi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychological Inquiry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.132.6.959","article-title":"Sex differences in trauma and PTSD: A quantitative review","volume":"132","author":"Tolin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1177\/107319119700400107","article-title":"Assessment of intellectual resources in gulf war veterans: Relationship to PTSD","volume":"4","author":"Vasterling","year":"1997","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.16.1.5","article-title":"Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons","volume":"16","author":"Vasterling","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence, Williams & Wilkins.","DOI":"10.1037\/11167-000"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2008). WAIS-IV: Wechsler adult intelligence scale\u2014Fourth edition: Technical and interpretive manual, Pearson.","DOI":"10.1037\/t15169-000"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3","DOI":"10.1192\/j.eurpsy.2022.2343","article-title":"High intelligence is not associated with a greater propensity for mental health disorders","volume":"66","author":"Williams","year":"2023","journal-title":"European Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra012941","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"346","author":"Yehuda","year":"2002","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102961","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2024.102961","article-title":"The effects of intelligence on exposure to combat and posttraumatic stress disorder across multiple deployments","volume":"109","author":"Zalmenson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders"}],"container-title":["Journal of Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/14\/5\/73\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T10:28:32Z","timestamp":1777631312000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/14\/5\/73"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["jintelligence14050073"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jintelligence14050073","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3200"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3200","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]}}}