{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T04:16:55Z","timestamp":1788236215507,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study reanalyzes data from a previous investigation on critical thinking, metacognition, empathy, and psychological well-being by incorporating academic performance into a graphical-causal model. The aim was to compare two explanatory structures: a performance-mediated model, in which metacognition relates to psychological well-being through academic performance, and a direct metacognitive model, in which metacognition maintains a direct relation with well-being. The sample included 155 undergraduate psychology students. Critical thinking, metacognition, empathy, academic performance, and psychological well-being were modeled using directed acyclic graphs, conditional independence tests, Gaussian Bayesian networks, and bootstrap-based arc stability analysis. The initial performance-mediated DAG was not supported because the implied independence between metacognition and well-being conditional on performance was violated. The refined model, which included a direct metacognition\u2013well-being path, was more compatible with the data. Metacognition showed the strongest estimated path to psychological well-being, whereas academic performance did not operate as the main mediating mechanism. Bootstrap results supported the stability of the metacognition\u2013well-being adjacency. Overall, the findings suggest that critical thinking relates to psychological well-being mainly through metacognitive processes, under the assumptions of the specified DAG.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence14090193","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T03:19:26Z","timestamp":1788232766000},"page":"193","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From Critical Thinking to Well-Being: The Metacognitive Pathway in a Graphical-Causal Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5243-958X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Saiz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, University of Salamanca, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0835-376X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel H.","family":"Guamanga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Sciences, Universidad Icesi, Cali 760000, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6871-5246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia F.","family":"Rivas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, University of Salamanca, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3939-5807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristiano M. A.","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Cognitive Architecture Mapping (LAICO), Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e30","DOI":"10.1002\/brx2.30","article-title":"ChatGPT: The cognitive effects on learning and memory","volume":"(13)","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain-X"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baron, J. (2024). Thinking and deciding, Cambridge University Press. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/9781009263672"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Baron-Cohen, S. (2022). The science of evil: On empathy and the origins of cruelty, Basic Books. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00","article-title":"The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with ASPERGER syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences","volume":"34","author":"Wheelwright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Bender, E. M., and Hanna, A. (2025). The AI con: How to fight big tech\u2019s hype and create the future we want, Harper. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for behavioral sciences, Erlbaum. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davies, M., and Barnett, R. (2015). Introduction. The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education, Palgrave Macmillan US.","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137378057"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.44.1.113","article-title":"Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach","volume":"44","author":"Davis","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2018.05.010","article-title":"Whichever intelligence makes you happy: The role of academic, emotional, and practical abilities in predicting psychological well-being","volume":"132","year":"2018","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"572","article-title":"Adaptaci\u00f3n espa\u00f1ola de las escalas de bienestar psicol\u00f3gico de Ryff [Spanish adaptation of the Psychological Weil-Being Scales (PWBS)]","volume":"18","author":"Blanco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psicothema"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dumitru, D., and Halpern, D. F. (2023). Critical thinking: Creating job-proof skills for the future of work. Journal of Intelligence, 11, (10).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11100194"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwyer, C. P. (2017). Critical thinking: Conceptual perspectives and practical guidelines, Cambridge University Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/9781316537411"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwyer, C. P. (2023). An evaluative review of barriers to critical thinking in educational and real-world settings. Journal of Intelligence, 11, (105).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11060105"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2005.11.001","article-title":"Metacognition and affect: What can metacognitive experiences tell us about the learning process?","volume":"1","author":"Efklides","year":"2006","journal-title":"Educational Research Review"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Baron, J., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice, W H Freeman\/Times Books\/Henry Holt & Co."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ennis, R. H. (1996). Critical thinking dispositions: Their nature and assessability. Informal Logic, 18, (2).","DOI":"10.22329\/il.v18i2.2378"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Ennis, R. H. (2011). The nature of critical thinking: An outline of critical thinking dispositions and abilities, University of Illinois. Available online: https:\/\/education.illinois.edu\/docs\/default-source\/faculty-documents\/robert-ennis\/thenatureofcriticalthinking_51711_000.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Facione, P. A. (1998, July 30). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. \u201cThe Delphi report\u201d, Available online: https:\/\/files.eric.ed.gov\/fulltext\/ED315423.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.34.10.906","article-title":"Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive\u2013developmental inquiry","volume":"34","author":"Flavell","year":"1979","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Friedman, N., Nachman, I., and Pe\u2019er, D. (1999). Learning Bayesian network structure from distributed data. Proceedings of the fifteenth conference on uncertainty in artificial intelligence, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilar-Corbi, R., Pozo-Rico, T., Castej\u00f3n, J.-L., S\u00e1nchez, T., Sandoval-Palis, I., and Vidal, J. (2020). Academic achievement and failure in university studies: Motivational and emotional factors. Sustainability, 12, (23).","DOI":"10.3390\/su12239798"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guamanga, M. H., Gonz\u00e1lez, F. A., Saiz, C., and Rivas, S. F. (2023). Critical thinking: The ARDESOS-DIAPROVE program in dialogue with the inference to the best and only explanation. Journal of Intelligence, 11, (12).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11120226"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guamanga, M. H., Saiz, C., Rivas, S. F., and Almeida, L. S. (2024). Analysis of the contribution of critical thinking and psychological well-being to academic performance. Frontiers in Education, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2024.1423441"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guamanga, M. H., Saiz, C., Rivas, S. F., and Morales Bueno, P. (2025). Critical thinking and metacognition: Pathways to empathy and psychological well-being. Journal of Intelligence, 13, (3).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence13030034"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.53.4.449","article-title":"Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: Disposition, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring","volume":"53","author":"Halpern","year":"1998","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halpern, D. F., and Dunn, D. S. (2021). Critical thinking: A model of intelligence for solving real-world problems. Journal of Intelligence, 9, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence9020022"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halpern, D. F., and Dunn, D. S. (2023). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking, Routledge. [6th ed.].","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003025412"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davies, M., and Barnett, R. (2015). Willingness to inquire: The cardinal critical thinking virtue. The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education, Palgrave Macmillan US.","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137378057"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Hattie, J. (2010). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement (Reprinted), Routledge."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hitchcock, D. (2017). The effectiveness of instruction in critical thinking. On reasoning and argument: Essays in informal logic and on critical thinking, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-53562-3"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"56","article-title":"Validaci\u00f3n del instrumento Inventario de Habilidades Metacognitivas (MAI) con estudiantes colombianos","volume":"5","year":"2014","journal-title":"Praxis & Saber"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J\u00e4rvel\u00e4, S., Hadwin, A., Malmberg, J., and Miller, M. (2018). Contemporary perspectives of regulated learning in collaboration. International handbook of the learning sciences, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315617572-13"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, Guilford Publications. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X028002016","article-title":"A developmental model of critical thinking","volume":"28","author":"Kuhn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1207\/s15430421tip4304_4","article-title":"Metacognition: A bridge between cognitive psychology and educational practice","volume":"43","author":"Kuhn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Theory into Practice"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251524592311560","DOI":"10.1177\/25152459231156085","article-title":"A primer on structural equation model diagrams and directed acyclic graphs: When and how to use each in psychological and epidemiological research","volume":"6","author":"Kunicki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291703001624","article-title":"Measuring empathy: Reliability and validity of the Empathy Quotient","volume":"34","author":"Lawrence","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychological Medicine"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1111\/jopy.12663","article-title":"Big five personality traits and academic performance: A meta-analysis","volume":"90","author":"Mammadov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Personality"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1080\/00224545.2021.1985415","article-title":"How cognitive and emotional empathy relate to rational thinking: Empirical evidence and meta-analysis","volume":"162","author":"Martingano","year":"2022","journal-title":"The Journal of Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"El rendimiento acad\u00e9mico: Concepto, investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollo","volume":"1","author":"Navarro","year":"2003","journal-title":"REICE. Revista Iberoamericana Sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio En Educaci\u00f3n"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"OpenAI (2026, July 28). Introducing ChatGPT, Available online: https:\/\/openai.com\/index\/chatgpt\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pearl, J. (2009). Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803161"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Pearl, J., Glymour, M., and Jewell, N. (2016). Causal inference in statistics: A primer, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Pearl, J., and Mackenzie, D. (2018). The book of why: The new science of cause and effect, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. Handbook of self-regulation, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012109890-2\/50043-3"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1007\/s11528-025-01100-1","article-title":"Pedagogical applications of generative AI in higher education: A systematic review of the field","volume":"69","author":"Qian","year":"2025","journal-title":"TechTrends"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"5","article-title":"Enhancing critical thinking skills in ChatGPT-human interaction: A scoping review","volume":"11","author":"Raitskaya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Language and Education"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"R Core Team (2026, July 28). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.5.2) [Computer software], Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-48082018000200081","article-title":"Adaptaci\u00f3n del Empathy Quotient (EQ) en una muestra espa\u00f1ola","volume":"36","author":"Redondo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Terapia Psicol\u00f3gica"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Resnick, L. B. (1987). Education and learning to think, National Academy Press."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026838","article-title":"Psychological correlates of university students\u2019 academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"138","author":"Richardson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"18","article-title":"Validaci\u00f3n y propiedades psicom\u00e9tricas de la prueba de pensamiento cr\u00edtico PENCRISAL","volume":"17","author":"Rivas","year":"2012b","journal-title":"Revista Electr\u00f3nica de Metodolog\u00eda Aplicada"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2023.101306","article-title":"Evaluation of the effectiveness of the ARDESOS-DIAPROVE critical thinking training programme","volume":"48","author":"Rivas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Thinking Skills and Creativity"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., and Almeida, L. S. (2023). The role of critical thinking in predicting and improving academic performance. Sustainability, 15, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/su15021527"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., and Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Frontiers in Psychology, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.913219"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.2.261","article-title":"Do psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis","volume":"130","author":"Robbins","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.68","article-title":"Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being","volume":"55","author":"Ryan","year":"2000","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.57.6.1069","article-title":"Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being","volume":"57","author":"Ryff","year":"1989","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1159\/000353263","article-title":"Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia","volume":"83","author":"Ryff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.69.4.719","article-title":"The structure of psychological well-being revisited","volume":"69","author":"Ryff","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Saiz, C. (2020). Pensamiento cr\u00edtico y eficacia, Ediciones Pir\u00e1mide. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Saiz, C. (2024). Pensamiento cr\u00edtico y cambio, Ediciones Pir\u00e1mide. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.4995\/redu.2012.6026","article-title":"Pensamiento cr\u00edtico y aprendizaje basado en problemas cotidianos","volume":"10","author":"Saiz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Revista de Docencia Universitaria"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saiz, C., and Rivas, S. F. (2023). Critical thinking, formation, and change. Journal of Intelligence, 11, (12).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11120219"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1006\/ceps.1994.1033","article-title":"Assessing metacognitive awareness","volume":"19","author":"Schraw","year":"1994","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02212307","article-title":"Metacognitive theories","volume":"7","author":"Schraw","year":"1995","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v035.i03","article-title":"Learning Bayesian networks with the bnlearn R package","volume":"35","author":"Scutari","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shipley, B. (2016). Cause and correlation in biology: A user\u2019s guide to path analysis, structural equations and causal inference with R, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139979573"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Adaptive intelligence: Surviving and thriving in times of uncertainty, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781316650554"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sternberg, R. J., Dashtaki, A. S., and Baydil, B. (2024). An empirical test of the concept of the adaptively intelligent attitude. Journal of Intelligence, 12, (49).","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence12050049"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1887","article-title":"Robust causal inference using directed acyclic graphs: The R package \u2018dagitty\u2019","volume":"45","author":"Textor","year":"2016","journal-title":"International Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511840005"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davies, M., and Barnett, R. (2015). Using argument mapping to improve critical thinking skills. The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education, Palgrave Macmillan US.","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137378057"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1207\/s15430421tip4102_2","article-title":"Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview","volume":"41","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Theory into Practice"}],"container-title":["Journal of Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/14\/9\/193\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T03:43:53Z","timestamp":1788234233000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/14\/9\/193"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jintelligence14090193"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jintelligence14090193","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3200"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3200","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]}}}