{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T09:18:26Z","timestamp":1788254306524,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002383","name":"King Saud University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ORF-2026-601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ORF-2026-601"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002383","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["ORF-2026-601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ORF-2026-601"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02f81g417","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Assessed creative thinking is a cognitive individual-difference construct\u2014related to, but not equivalent to, conventional intelligence\u2014that PISA 2022 measured directly at scale. We asked how its associated resources are structured, and whether discrete student \u201ctypes\u201d or continuous dimensions better predict creative-thinking performance. Using 44 education systems (306,704 students; complete-indicator sample 235,240), we estimated senate-weighted Gaussian mixtures of nine within-system standardized creativity indicators and related them to performance (10 plausible values; Fay balanced repeated replication). A six-profile solution was reproducible given adequate optimization (mean adjusted Rand index 0.95 across 12 subsamples), yet no class count was selected\u2014information criteria improved monotonically from 2 to 12 classes\u2014and the profiles were predictively redundant: in leakage-safe cross-validation they explained less variance (R2 = 0.028) than the nine continuous indicators (0.044) or a flexible continuous model (0.068) across K = 2\u201312 and under hard or soft classification. After a validated classification-error correction, performance-proximal dispositions and curiosity, more than relational perceptions, predicted creative-thinking performance. For measuring and modeling creative ability, continuous resource dimensions were more informative than discrete types, which amounted to an enumeratively underdetermined, predictively redundant re-description of continuous variation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence14090207","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T08:31:13Z","timestamp":1788251473000},"page":"207","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Profiles or Continua? Reproducible but Redundant Creativity-Resource Configurations in PISA 2022"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9155-8012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Faye","family":"Antoniou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Studies, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Alghamdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Self-Development Skills, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-016-9389-8","article-title":"What schools need to know about fostering school belonging: A meta-analysis","volume":"30","author":"Allen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1080\/10705511.2014.955104","article-title":"Robustness of stepwise latent class modeling with continuous distal outcomes","volume":"23","author":"Bakk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Structural Equation Modeling"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70003","DOI":"10.1002\/jocb.70003","article-title":"PISA 2022 creative thinking assessment: Opportunities, challenges, and cautions","volume":"59","author":"Barbot","year":"2025","journal-title":"The Journal of Creative Behavior"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.3200\/MONO.132.4.355-430","article-title":"Creativity, intelligence, and personality: A critical review of the scattered literature","volume":"132","author":"Batey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.8.3.338","article-title":"Distributional assumptions of growth mixture models: Implications for overextraction of latent trajectory classes","volume":"8","author":"Bauer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychological Methods"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326934crj1804_4","article-title":"Creative self-efficacy: Correlates in middle and secondary students","volume":"18","author":"Beghetto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Creativity Research Journal"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1037\/1931-3896.1.2.73","article-title":"Toward a broader conception of creativity: A case for \u201cmini-c\u201d creativity","volume":"1","author":"Beghetto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"180","article-title":"A theory of human curiosity","volume":"45","author":"Berlyne","year":"1954","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1093\/pan\/mph001","article-title":"Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: One-step versus three-step estimators","volume":"12","author":"Bolck","year":"2004","journal-title":"Political Analysis"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carroll, J. 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