{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]],"date-time":"2026-09-13T05:04:56Z","timestamp":1789275896540,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789084800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Creativity research faces three persistent bottlenecks: divergent-thinking scoring is labour-intensive, cognitive models of creativity remain underspecified, and laboratory tasks fall short of real-world creative achievement. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential solutions, but the field lacks a structured framework for evaluating them. This selective narrative review (January 2018\u2013June 2026) applies the generation\u2013capability\u2013assessment (GCA) framework, whose three axes are operationalised through descriptive criteria with provisional heuristic thresholds. On the generation axis, LLMs exceed average human performance on divergent-thinking tasks in most independent comparisons (Hedges\u2019 g \u2248 0.5\u20132.6), an advantage qualified by fluency dependency, the superiority of top-performing humans at scale, and a novelty\u2013typicality trade-off. On the capability axis, LLMs simulate some task-level associative behaviour and can generate hypotheses for human research, but there is no evidence that they instantiate human-like creative mechanisms. On the assessment axis, automated scoring shows promising reliability and convergent validity for specific languages and tasks (ICC \u2265 0.80 and r \u2265 0.70 in selected studies), but cross-language generalisation is largely untested and individual-level use is unsupported. Human\u2013AI co-creativity may benefit from a division of labour, although social\u2013affective dimensions may matter more than cognitive support. We provide a GCA reporting protocol and identify research priorities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence14090218","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T10:51:37Z","timestamp":1789123897000},"page":"218","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evaluation of Large Language Models as Tools, Models, and Partners in Creative Thinking Research: A Selective Narrative Review with the GCA Framework"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Kexin","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China"},{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1947-7365","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunlei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaqin","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.43.5.997","article-title":"Social psychology of creativity: A consensual assessment technique","volume":"43","author":"Amabile","year":"1982","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3672277","article-title":"ID.8: Co-creating visual stories with generative AI","volume":"14","author":"Antony","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2022.11.002","article-title":"Mental navigation and the neural mechanisms of insight","volume":"46","author":"Aru","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends in Neurosciences"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1002\/jocb.002","article-title":"Domain specificity and the limits of creativity theory","volume":"46","author":"Baer","year":"2012","journal-title":"The Journal of Creative Behavior"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2024.2335321","article-title":"Developing evaluative judgement for a time of generative artificial intelligence","volume":"49","author":"Bearman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-020-01453-w","article-title":"Automating creativity assessment with SemDis: An open platform for computing semantic distance","volume":"53","author":"Beaty","year":"2021","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1080\/10400419.2022.2025720","article-title":"Semantic distance and the alternate uses task: Recommendations for reliable automated assessment of originality","volume":"34","author":"Beaty","year":"2022","journal-title":"Creativity Research Journal"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.04.004","article-title":"Associative thinking at the core of creativity","volume":"27","author":"Beaty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1713532115","article-title":"Robust prediction of individual creative ability from brain functional connectivity","volume":"115","author":"Beaty","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-25157-3","article-title":"Divergent creativity in humans and large language models","volume":"16","author":"Lespinasse","year":"2026","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bender, E. 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