{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T09:00:49Z","timestamp":1790413249421,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coccidioidomycosis occurs after inhalation of airborne spores of the endemic, dimorphic fungus, Coccidioides. While the majority of individuals resolve the infection without coming to medical attention, the fungus is a major cause of community-acquired pneumonia in the endemic region, and chronic pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease poses significant personal and economic burdens. This review explores the literature surrounding human susceptibility to coccidioidomycosis, including chronic pulmonary and extrapulmonary dissemination. Over the past century of study, themes have emerged surrounding factors impacting human susceptibility to severe disease or dissemination, including immune suppression, genetic susceptibility, sex, pregnancy, and genetic ancestry. Early studies were observational, frequently with small numbers of cases; several of these early studies are highly cited in review papers, becoming part of the coccidioidomycosis \u201ccanon\u201d. Specific genetic variants, sex, and immune suppression by TNF inhibitors have been validated in later cohort studies, confirming the original hypotheses. By contrast, some risk factors, such as ABO blood group, Filipino ancestry, or lack of erythema nodosum among black individuals, are repeated in the literature despite the lack of supporting studies or biologic plausibility. Using examination of historical reports coupled with recent cohort and epidemiology studies, evidence for commonly reported risk factors is discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof10040256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T12:22:46Z","timestamp":1711628566000},"page":"256","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The Known and Unknown \u201cKnowns\u201d of Human Susceptibility to Coccidioidomycosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6841-2122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amy P.","family":"Hsu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6689","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.73.10.6689-6703.2005","article-title":"A metalloproteinase of Coccidioides posadasii contributes to evasion of host detection","volume":"73","author":"Hung","year":"2005","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1394","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.36.12.1394","article-title":"Varieties of coccidioidal infection in relation to the epidemiology and control of the diseases","volume":"36","author":"Smith","year":"1946","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health Nations Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw538","article-title":"Executive Summary: 2016 Infectious Diseases Society of American (IDSA) Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of Coccidioidomycosis","volume":"63","author":"Galgiani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e159491","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.159491","article-title":"Immunogenetics associated with severe coccidioidomycosis","volume":"22","author":"Hsu","year":"2022","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofad597","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofad597","article-title":"A clinicopathological categorization system for clinical research in coccidioidomycosis","volume":"10","author":"Krogstad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). Center for Disease Control, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/fungal\/fungal-disease-reporting-table.html."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). Center for Disease Control, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/fungal\/diseases\/coccidioidomycosis\/statistics.html."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1738","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1611.100475","article-title":"Enhanced surveillance of coccidioidomycosis, Arizona, USA, 2007\u20132008","volume":"16","author":"Tsang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaa623","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa623","article-title":"Clinical and economic burden of valley fever in Arizona: An incidence-based cost-of-illness analysis","volume":"8","author":"Grizzle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, L., Ting, J., Lin, H., Shah, R., MacLean, M., Peterson, M.W., Stockamp, N., Libke, R., and Brown, P. (2019). The rise of valley fever: Prevalence and cost burden of coccidioidomycosis infection in California. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16071113"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1097\/00005792-199011000-00006","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection. A review of 77 patients","volume":"69","author":"Fish","year":"1990","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw085","article-title":"Incidence of AIDS-defining opportunistic infections in a multicohort analysis of HIV-infected persons in the United States and Canada, 2000\u20132010","volume":"214","author":"Buchacz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1086\/323463","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in solid organ transplantation","volume":"33","author":"Blair","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.1002\/art.20454","article-title":"Increased risk of coccidioidomycosis in patients treated with tumor necrosis factor \u03b1 antagonists","volume":"50","author":"Bergstrom","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofac032","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac032","article-title":"Contribution of biologic response modifiers to the risk of Coccidioidomycosis severity","volume":"9","author":"Donovan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6948a4","article-title":"Regional Analysis of Coccidioidomycosis Incidence\u2014California, 2000\u20132018","volume":"69","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2607.200024","article-title":"Risk for Coccidioidomycosis among Hispanic farm workers, California, USA, 2018","volume":"26","author":"Mccurdy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S41","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myy031","article-title":"Occupational coccidioidomycosis surveillance and recent outbreaks in California","volume":"57","author":"Materna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-106-3-372","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome","volume":"106","author":"Bronnimann","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(93)90054-S","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: Results of a prospective study in a coccidioidal endemic area","volume":"94","author":"Ampel","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1086\/315401","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in human immunodeficiency virus\u2013infected persons in Arizona, 1994\u20131997: Incidence, risk factors, and prevention","volume":"181","author":"Woods","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1086\/648719","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in patients with HIV-1 infection in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy","volume":"50","author":"Masannat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1531","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in bone marrow transplant recipients","volume":"56","author":"Riley","year":"1993","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1080\/13693780500147840","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients","volume":"43","author":"Glenn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bmt.1704894","article-title":"Successful allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in a patient with active Coccidioidomycosis","volume":"35","author":"Schriber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr2018224965","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2018-224965","article-title":"Disseminated coccidioidomycosis masquerading as recurrent lymphoma","volume":"2018","author":"Manning","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3602","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2019000634","article-title":"Missed diagnosis and misdiagnosis of infectious diseases in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: An autopsy study","volume":"3","author":"Multani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saling, C.F., Gea-Banacloche, J., Trickett, J.S., and Blair, J.E. (2021). Coccidioidomycosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: Case series and review of the literature. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7050339"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14155","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.14155","article-title":"A review of endemic mycoses after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation","volume":"25","author":"Abad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-6143.2010.03328.x","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in liver transplant recipients in an endemic area","volume":"11","author":"Vucicevic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, D., Kelley, K.D., Dandekar, S., Cohen, S.H., and Thompson, G.R. (2023). Case Series of End-Stage Liver Disease Patients with Severe Coccidioidomycosis. J. Fungi, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof9030305"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2023.04.004","article-title":"Fatal Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis in Cirrhosis: A Case Series","volume":"136","author":"Blohm","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2014.08.010","article-title":"Cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction: Distinctive features and clinical relevance","volume":"61","author":"Albillos","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12744","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.12744","article-title":"Single-center experience of antifungal prophylaxis for coccidioidomycosis in heart transplant recipients within an endemic area","volume":"19","author":"Lohrmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1111\/ajt.15324","article-title":"De novo coccidioidomycosis among solid organ transplant recipients 1 or more years after transplant","volume":"19","author":"Asbury","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12713","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.12713","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis among persons undergoing lung transplantation in the coccidioidal endemic region","volume":"19","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1966","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab752","article-title":"Universal lifelong fungal prophylaxis and risk of coccidioidomycosis in lung transplant recipients living in an endemic area","volume":"74","author":"Truong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myaa109","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in patients with various inflammatory disorders treated with tumor necrosis factor \u03b1 inhibitors","volume":"59","author":"Delafield","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.21784","article-title":"Management of coccidioidomycosis in patients receiving biologic response modifiers or disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs","volume":"64","author":"Taroumian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S56","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myy019","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in selected immunosuppressed hosts","volume":"57","author":"Blair","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss6807a1","article-title":"Surveillance for Coccidioidomycosis\u2013United States, 2011\u20132017","volume":"68","author":"Benedict","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Surveill. Summ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1602.090918","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis among scholarship athletes and other college students, Arizona, USA","volume":"16","author":"Stern","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e19980","article-title":"Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis in an Adolescent with Crohn\u2019s Disease","volume":"13","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaa167","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa167","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in patients treated with ruxolitinib","volume":"7","author":"Kusne","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2302.160505","article-title":"Risk factors for disseminated Coccidioidomycosis, United States","volume":"23","author":"Odio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shubitz, L.F., Powell, D.A., Dial, S.M., Butkiewicz, C.D., Trinh, H.T., Hsu, A.P., Buntzman, A., Frelinger, J.A., and Galgiani, J.N. (2022). Reactivation of Coccidioidomycosis in a mouse model of asymptomatic controlled disease. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8100991"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Powell, D.A., Shubitz, L.F., Butkiewicz, C.D., Trinh, H.T., Donovan, F.M., Frelinger, J.A., and Galgiani, J.N. (2022). TNF\u03b1 blockade inhibits both initial and continued control of pulmonary Coccidioides. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.796114"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e31819866ec","article-title":"Coccidioides immitis meningitis in a patient with hyperimmunoglobulin E syndrome due to a novel mutation in signal transducer and activator of transcription","volume":"28","author":"Powers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.01.047","article-title":"Invasive fungal disease in autosomal-dominant Hyper-IgE syndrome","volume":"125","author":"Vinh","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.07.003","article-title":"Endemic mycoses in patients with STAT3-mutated hyper-IgE (Job) syndrome","volume":"136","author":"Odio","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1177\/0009922808319788","article-title":"Visual changes in a 4-year-old","volume":"47","author":"Stanga","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e62","DOI":"10.1086\/605532","article-title":"Refractory disseminated coccidioidomycosis and mycobacteriosis in interferon-\u03b3 receptor 1 deficiency","volume":"49","author":"Vinh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e99","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciq215","article-title":"Interleukin-12 receptor \u03b21 deficiency predisposing to disseminated coccidioidomycosis","volume":"52","author":"Vinh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.01.052","article-title":"Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) gain-of-function mutations and disseminated coccidioidomycosis and histoplasmosis","volume":"131","author":"Sampaio","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.4049\/immunohorizons.2200007","article-title":"Mouse model of a human STAT4 point mutation that predisposes to disseminated coccidioidomycosis","volume":"6","author":"Powell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunohorizons"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Imran, T., and Cui, C. (2013, January 22\u201327). GATA2 transcription factor deficiency predisposing to severe disseminated Coccidioidomycosis. Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Immunology (ICI), Milan, Italy."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2653","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2011-05-356352","article-title":"Mutations in GATA2 are associated with the autosomal dominant and sporadic monocytopenia and mycobacterial infection (MonoMAC) syndrome","volume":"118","author":"Hsu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2656","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2011-06-360313","article-title":"Exome sequencing identifies GATA-2 mutation as the cause of dendritic cell, monocyte, B and NK lymphoid deficiency","volume":"118","author":"Dickinson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000003333","article-title":"Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis as the first presentation of a C-terminal NFKB2 pathogenic variant: A case report and review of the literature","volume":"41","author":"Aparicio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2013.09.009","article-title":"Germline mutations in NFKB2 implicate the noncanonical NF-\u03baB pathway in the pathogenesis of common variable immunodeficiency","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofac403","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac403","article-title":"Seronegative mediastinal coccidioidomycosis as a novel presentation of CTPS1 combined immunodeficiency","volume":"9","author":"Krase","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00597-12","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00597-12","article-title":"Dectin-1 is required for resistance to coccidioidomycosis in mice","volume":"4","author":"Viriyakosol","year":"2013","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/gene.2008.23","article-title":"Susceptibility to Coccidioides species in C57BL\/6 mice is associated with expression of a truncated splice variant of Dectin-1 (Clec7a)","volume":"9","author":"Viriyakosol","year":"2008","journal-title":"Genes Immun."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-03-1239","article-title":"Dectin-1 activates Syk tyrosine kinase in a dynamic subset of macrophages for reactive oxygen production","volume":"106","author":"Underhill","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.02-1104fje","article-title":"Dual oxidases represent novel hydrogen peroxide sources supporting mucosal surface host defense","volume":"17","author":"Geiszt","year":"2003","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-018-7545-1","article-title":"Antimicrobial actions of dual oxidases and lactoperoxidase","volume":"56","author":"Sarr","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2013.05.004","article-title":"A quantitative study of the cell-type specific modulation of c-Rel by hydrogen peroxide and TNF-\u03b1","volume":"1","author":"Silva","year":"2013","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4995","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.176.8.4995","article-title":"Duration and intensity of NF-\u03baB activity determine the severity of endotoxin-induced acute lung injury","volume":"176","author":"Everhart","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa011110","article-title":"Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agent","volume":"345","author":"Keane","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00028510","article-title":"The risk of tuberculosis related to tumour necrosis factor antagonist therapies: A TBNET consensus statement","volume":"36","author":"Solovic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofab543","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab543","article-title":"Sex differences in susceptibility to Coccidioidomycosis","volume":"9","author":"McHardy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993.e11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2006.04.022","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in pregnancy: Case report and review of the literature","volume":"119","author":"Crum","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1086\/319203","article-title":"Risk factors for severe pulmonary and disseminated coccidioidomycosis: Kern County, California, 1995\u20131996","volume":"32","author":"Rosenstein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1809.120151","article-title":"Hospitalizations associated with disseminated coccidioidomycosis, Arizona and California, USA","volume":"18","author":"Seitz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.76.5.566","article-title":"Symptomatic Coccidioidomycosis following a Severe Natural Dust Storm: An Outbreak at the Naval Air Station, Lemoore, Calif","volume":"76","author":"Williams","year":"1979","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"959","article-title":"Ethnic background and the clinical course of coccidioidomycosis (letter)","volume":"120","author":"Pappagianis","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"McCracken, B.E. (1953). Final Report of Coccidioidomycosis Research Project at Camp Roberts, Cal, 1 September 1952\u201315 October 1953, Surgeon\u2019s Office 6th Army."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/00362177985380381","article-title":"Association of ABO blood group and outcome of coccidioidal infection","volume":"17","author":"Deresinski","year":"1979","journal-title":"Sabouraudia"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1982.00340160069017","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in renal replacement therapy","volume":"142","author":"Cohen","year":"1982","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990508","article-title":"Influence of host genetics on the severity of coccidioidomycosis","volume":"5","author":"Louie","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"261","article-title":"Coccidioides immitis and coccidioidal granuloma","volume":"30","author":"MacNeal","year":"1914","journal-title":"J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1080\/02681219780001361","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in Tulare County, California, 1991: Reemergence of an endemic disease","volume":"35","author":"Durry","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Med. Vet. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3814","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1154","article-title":"Natural History of Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis: Examination of the Veterans Affairs\u2013Armed Forces Database","volume":"73","author":"Bays","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir410","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis during pregnancy: A review and recommendations for management","volume":"53","author":"Bercovitch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1086\/522182","article-title":"Immune reconstitution syndrome and exacerbation of infections after pregnancy","volume":"45","author":"Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2013.03.009","article-title":"Reproductive hormone concentrations in pregnancy and neonates: A systematic review","volume":"27","author":"Kuijper","year":"2013","journal-title":"Reprod. Biomed. Online"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmu008","article-title":"Androgens in pregnancy: Roles in parturition","volume":"20","author":"Makieva","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crwh.2021.e00299","article-title":"Disseminated peritoneal coccidioidomycosis in pregnancy following fertility treatment: A case report and literature review","volume":"30","author":"Abigail","year":"2021","journal-title":"Case Rep. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s11934-018-0816-x","article-title":"Novel Therapy for Male Hypogonadism","volume":"19","author":"Carrasquillo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Urol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-23-3-349","article-title":"Coccidioidomycosis in Southern California: Report of a new endemic area with a review of 100 cases","volume":"23","author":"Willett","year":"1945","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM197908163010705","article-title":"An unusual outbreak of windborne coccidioidomycosis","volume":"301","author":"Flynn","year":"1979","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e127","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268820002836","article-title":"Sociodemographic factors associated with patients hospitalised for coccidioidomycosis in California and Arizona, State Inpatient Database 2005\u20132011","volume":"149","author":"Kupferwasser","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Gifford, M.A., and Coccidioidomycosis, Kern County (2024, January 21). Presented Sixth Pacific Science Congress of the Pacific Science Association. 2 August 1939. Available online: https:\/\/kernpublichealth.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/LibraryCocci-Article-1939.pdf."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"527","article-title":"Tempest from Tehachapi takes toll or Coccidioides conveyed aloft and afar","volume":"129","author":"Pappagianis","year":"1978","journal-title":"West. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1086\/514985","article-title":"Erythema Nodosum in pregnant patients with Coccidioidomycosis","volume":"27","author":"Arsura","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenks, J.D., Aneke, C.I., Al-Obaidi, M.M., Egger, M., Garcia, L., Gaines, T., Hoenigl, M., and Thompson, G.R. (2023). Race and ethnicity: Risk factors for fungal infections?. PLoS Pathog., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011025"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"S20","article-title":"Dermatological Conditions in SKIN OF COLOR-: Managing Atopic dermatitis","volume":"14","author":"Sangha","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Aesthetic Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.142.6.744","article-title":"The exanthem of acute pulmonary coccidioidomycosis. Clinical and histopathologic features of 3 cases and review of the literature","volume":"142","author":"DiCaudo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-006-0062-5","article-title":"Serologic testing for symptomatic coccidioidomycosis in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed hosts","volume":"162","author":"Blair","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00953-09","article-title":"Polyfunctional T lymphocytes are in the peripheral blood of donors naturally immune to coccidioidomycosis and are not induced by dendritic cells","volume":"78","author":"Nesbit","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Thompson, G.R., and Coccidioidomycosis and Valley Fever (2024, January 05). 16 December 2022. Available online: https:\/\/emedicine.medscape.com\/article\/215978."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009). Outbreak of erythema nodosum of unknown cause\u2013New Mexico, November 2007\u2013January 2008. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 58, 1347\u20131351."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofac654","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac654","article-title":"Improving early recognition of coccidioidomycosis in urgent care clinics: Analysis of an implemented education program","volume":"10","author":"Pu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3107","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.139.9.3107","article-title":"Natural killer cell inhibition of young spherules and endospores of Coccidioides immitis","volume":"139","author":"Petkus","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01168","article-title":"Lymphatic migration of immune cells","volume":"10","author":"Hampton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1406.014","article-title":"Nuclear labeling of Coccidioides posadasii with green fluorescent protein","volume":"1111","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirkland, T.N., Stevens, D.A., Hung, C.-Y., Beyhan, S., Taylor, J.W., Shubitz, L.F., Duttke, S.H., Heidari, A., Johnson, R.H., and Deresinski, S.C. (2022). Coccidioides species: A review of basic research: 2022. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8080859"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.06.020","article-title":"Starvation-induced transgenerational inheritance of small RNAs in C. elegans","volume":"158","author":"Rechavi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27549","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2008336117","article-title":"Prenatal and early-life exposure to the Great Chinese Famine increased the risk of tuberculosis in adulthood across two generations","volume":"117","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-022-01106-x","article-title":"Leveraging genomic diversity for discovery in an electronic health record linked biobank: The UCLA ATLAS Community Health Initiative","volume":"14","author":"Johnson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.115.178616","article-title":"Characterizing Race\/Ethnicity and Genetic Ancestry for 100,000 Subjects in the Genetic Epidemiology Research on Adult Health and Aging (GERA) Cohort","volume":"200","author":"Banda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genetics"}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/10\/4\/256\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:19:52Z","timestamp":1760105992000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/10\/4\/256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["jof10040256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof10040256","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]}}}