{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:45:54Z","timestamp":1791333954123,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742947200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FAPESP (S\u00e3o Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil)","award":["2020\/07611-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/07611-9"]}]},{"name":"FAPESP (S\u00e3o Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil)","award":["Pq-1C 311895\/2022-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Pq-1C 311895\/2022-0"]}]},{"name":"FAPESP (S\u00e3o Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil)","award":["88887.571160\/2020-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88887.571160\/2020-00"]}]},{"name":"CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development)","award":["2020\/07611-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/07611-9"]}]},{"name":"CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development)","award":["Pq-1C 311895\/2022-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Pq-1C 311895\/2022-0"]}]},{"name":"CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development)","award":["88887.571160\/2020-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88887.571160\/2020-00"]}]},{"name":"CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Level Personnel)","award":["2020\/07611-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/07611-9"]}]},{"name":"CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Level Personnel)","award":["Pq-1C 311895\/2022-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Pq-1C 311895\/2022-0"]}]},{"name":"CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Level Personnel)","award":["88887.571160\/2020-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88887.571160\/2020-00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aspergillosis is a fungal disease caused by the inhalation of Aspergillus spores, with Aspergillus fumigatus being the primary causative agent. This thermotolerant fungus affects both immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals, posing a significant public health concern. In recent years, the detection of A. fumigatus in food products and production environments has raised questions about its potential role as an additional route of exposure. Furthermore, the emergence of azole-resistant strains in agricultural settings highlights the need to better understand its transmission dynamics and implications for food safety. This review explores the occurrence of A. fumigatus in crops and food products, its possible routes of contamination, and the potential link between environmental exposure to azole fungicides and resistance development. Additionally, it identifies knowledge gaps and proposes future research directions to improve risk assessment and mitigation strategies within the food production chain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof11040252","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T04:17:14Z","timestamp":1742962634000},"page":"252","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Aspergillus fumigatus in the Food Production Chain and Azole Resistance: A Growing Concern for Consumers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2520-1696","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katherin","family":"Castro-R\u00edos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Protection, Agricultural Engineering and Soil, S\u00e3o Paulo State University\u2014UNESP, Ilha Solteira 15385-000, SP, Brazil"},{"name":"Escuela de Nutrici\u00f3n y Diet\u00e9tica, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Industrial de Santander (UIS), Bucaramanga 680001, Santander, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Clara Shiroma","family":"Buri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Protection, Agricultural Engineering and Soil, S\u00e3o Paulo State University\u2014UNESP, Ilha Solteira 15385-000, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arla Daniela","family":"Ramalho da Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Protection, Agricultural Engineering and Soil, S\u00e3o Paulo State University\u2014UNESP, Ilha Solteira 15385-000, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2381-2792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo Cezar","family":"Ceresini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Protection, Agricultural Engineering and Soil, S\u00e3o Paulo State University\u2014UNESP, Ilha Solteira 15385-000, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2021.04.013","article-title":"Aspergillus Derived Mycotoxins in Food and the Environment: Prevalence, Detection, and Toxicity","volume":"8","author":"Navale","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simyco.2014.07.004","article-title":"Phylogeny, Identification and Nomenclature of the Genus Aspergillus","volume":"78","author":"Samson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stud. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2018.05.008","article-title":"Aspergillus Species and Mycotoxins: Occurrence and Importance in Major Food Commodities","volume":"23","author":"Taniwaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pitt, J.I., and Hocking, A.D. (2022). Fungi and Food Spoilage, Springer. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-85640-3"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burks, C., Darby, A., G\u00f3mez Londo\u00f1o, L., Momany, M., and Brewer, M.T. (2021). Azole-Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus in the Environment: Identifying Key Reservoirs and Hotspots of Antifungal Resistance. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009711"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meis, J.F., Chowdhary, A., Rhodes, J.L., Fisher, M.C., and Verweij, P.E. (2016). Clinical Implications of Globally Emerging Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., 371.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0460"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2021.03.008","article-title":"Aspergillosis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment","volume":"35","author":"Cadena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00140-18","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00140-18","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillosis in 2019","volume":"33","author":"Chamilos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caggiano, G., Apollonio, F., Consiglio, M., Gasparre, V., Trerotoli, P., Diella, G., Lopuzzo, M., Triggiano, F., Stolfa, S., and Mosca, A. (2022). Tendency in Pulmonary Aspergillosis Investigation During the COVID-19 Era: What Is Changing?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127079"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2020.09.004","article-title":"COVID-19 Associated with Pulmonary Aspergillosis: A Literature Review","volume":"54","author":"Lai","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). WHO Fungal Priority Pathogens List to Guide Research, Development and Public Health Action, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-015-0225-7","article-title":"Gliotoxin Production by Aspergillus fumigatus Strains from Animal Environment. Micro-Analytical Sample Treatment Combined with a LC-MS\/MS Method for Gliotoxin Determination","volume":"31","author":"Pena","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), European Environment Agency (EEA), European Medicines Agency (EMA), and European Commission\u2019s Joint Research Centre (JRC) (2025). Impact of the Use of Azole Fungicides, Other than as Human Medicines, on the Development of Azole-Resistant Aspergillus spp. EFSA J., 23, e9200.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2025.9200"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-024-00850-5","article-title":"Azole Resistance in Veterinary Clinical Aspergillus fumigatus Isolates in the Netherlands","volume":"189","author":"Buil","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berger, S., El Chazli, Y., Babu, A.F., and Coste, A.T. (2017). Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus: A Consequence of Antifungal Use in Agriculture?. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01024"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/1348-0421.12957","article-title":"Azole-Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus as an Emerging Worldwide Pathogen","volume":"66","author":"Toyotome","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"myae098","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myae098","article-title":"Prevalence of Azole-Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus and Other Aspergilli in the Environment from Argentina","volume":"62","author":"Molinero","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2979","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dku259","article-title":"Multi-Azole-Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus in the Environment in Tanzania","volume":"69","author":"Chowdhary","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myu076","article-title":"Does Farm Fungicide Use Induce Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus?","volume":"53","author":"Kano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2016.12.013","article-title":"Fungicides Induced Triazole-Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus Associated with Mutations of TR46\/Y121F\/T289A and Its Appearance in Agricultural Fields","volume":"326","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01549-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01549-17","article-title":"Elevated MIC Values of Imidazole Drugs Against Aspergillus fumigatus Isolates with TR34\/L98H\/S297T\/F495I Mutation","volume":"62","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.08.247","article-title":"Tebuconazole Induces Triazole-Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus in Liquid Medium and Soil","volume":"648","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2601.190885","article-title":"High Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus Isolates from Strawberry Fields, China, 2018","volume":"26","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraaije, B.A., Atkins, S.L., Santos, R.F., Hanley, S.J., West, J.S., and Lucas, J.A. (2021). Epidemiological Studies of Pan-Azole Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus Populations Sampled during Tulip Cultivation Show Clonal Expansion with Acquisition of Multi-Fungicide Resistance as Potential Driver. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9112379"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraaije, B., Atkins, S., Hanley, S., Macdonald, A., and Lucas, J. (2020). The Multi-Fungicide Resistance Status of Aspergillus fumigatus Populations in Arable Soils and the Wider European Environment. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.599233"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115124","article-title":"Triazole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus in Crop Plant Soil after Tebuconazole Applications","volume":"266","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Resendiz-Sharpe, A., Dewaele, K., Merckx, R., Bustamante, B., Vega-Gomez, M.C., Rolon, M., Jacobs, J., Verweij, P.E., Maertens, J., and Lagrou, K. (2021). Triazole-Resistance in Environmental Aspergillus fumigatus in Latin American and African Countries. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7040292"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jkab427","DOI":"10.1093\/g3journal\/jkab427","article-title":"Evidence for the Agricultural Origin of Resistance to Multiple Antimicrobials in Aspergillus fumigatus, a Fungal Pathogen of Humans","volume":"12","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"G3"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2025, February 08). Eucast: Breakpoints for Antifungals. Available online: https:\/\/www.eucast.org\/astoffungi\/clinicalbreakpointsforantifungals."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viegas, C., Sim\u00f5es, A.B., Faria, M., Gomes, B., Cervantes, R., Dias, M., Carolino, E., Twaruzek, M., Kosicki, R., and Viegas, S. (2023). Tea Contamination by Mycotoxins and Azole-Resistant Mycobiota\u2014The Need of a One Health Approach to Tackle Exposures. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 385.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.110015"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.3934\/microbiol.2017.4.960","article-title":"Assessment of Occupational Exposure to Azole Resistant Fungi in 10 Portuguese Bakeries","volume":"3","author":"Caetano","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIMS Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2017.1286927","article-title":"Fungal Contamination in Green Coffee Beans Samples: A Public Health Concern","volume":"80","author":"Viegas","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pouris, J., Kolyva, F., Bratakou, S., Vogiatzi, C.A., Chaniotis, D., and Beloukas, A. (2024). The Role of Fungi in Food Production and Processing. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14125046"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.08.001","article-title":"Contamination with Storage Fungi of Human Food from Cameroon","volume":"135","author":"Njobeh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1080\/00275514.2019.1631137","article-title":"Diversity of Thermophilic and Thermotolerant Fungi in Corn Grain","volume":"111","author":"Sandona","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mycologia"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.561","article-title":"Occurrence of Filamentous Fungi in Maize Destined for Human Consumption in South Africa","volume":"6","author":"Ekwomadu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekpakpale, D.O., Kraak, B., Meijer, M., Ayeni, K.I., Houbraken, J., and Ezekiel, C.N. (2021). Fungal Diversity and Aflatoxins in Maize and Rice Grains and Cassava-Based Flour (Pupuru) from Ondo State, Nigeria. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7080635"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.26656\/fr.2017.6(1).511","article-title":"Mycotoxigenic Fungi Contamination of Grains and Peanuts from Open Markets in Kelantan, Malaysia","volume":"6","author":"Salisu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-72.3.662","article-title":"Molds and Mycotoxin Content of Cereals in Southeastern Romania","volume":"72","author":"Tabuc","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.3923\/pjbs.2010.794.801","article-title":"Morphological Identification of Foodborne Pathogens Colonizing Rice Grains in South Asia","volume":"13","author":"Reddy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pak. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Douksouna, Y., Masanga, J., Nyerere, A., Runo, S., and Ambang, Z. (2019). Towards Managing and Controlling Aflatoxin Producers within Aspergillus Species in Infested Rice Grains Collected from Local Markets in Kenya. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11090544"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1080\/15569543.2016.1233890","article-title":"Study of Fungi and Their Toxigenic Potential Isolated from Wheat and Wheat Bran","volume":"36","author":"Saleemi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxin Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1002\/ffj.3551","article-title":"Biocontrol of Toxigenic Aspergillus Strains Isolated from Baby Foods by Essential Oils","volume":"35","author":"Yassein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Flavour Fragr. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/jemt.23103","article-title":"Assessment of Mold and Yeast in Some Bakery Products of Lahore, Pakistan Based on LM and SEM","volume":"82","author":"Saeed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microsc. Res. Tech."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.02.001","article-title":"Mycobiota and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in South African Maize-Based Opaque Beer","volume":"270","author":"Adekoya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2014.01.025","article-title":"Mycological Quality and Mycotoxin Contamination of Sri Lankan Peppers (Piper nigrum L.) and Subsequent Exposure Assessment","volume":"41","author":"Yogendrarajah","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.2174\/1871530316666160823145817","article-title":"Health Threats from Contamination of Spices Commercialized in Romania: Risks of Fungal and Bacterial Infections","volume":"16","author":"Man","year":"2016","journal-title":"Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1080\/02652030310001622791","article-title":"Mycological Survey for Potential Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin Producers and Their Toxicological Properties in Harvested Brazilian Black Pepper","volume":"20","author":"Gatti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2010.02.011","article-title":"Contamination of Common Spices in Saudi Arabia Markets with Potential Mycotoxin-Producing Fungi","volume":"17","author":"Hashem","year":"2010","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2012.03.042","article-title":"Effect of Robusta (Coffea canephora P.) Coffee Cherries Quantity Put out for Sun Drying on Contamination by Fungi and Ochratoxin A (OTA) under Tropical Humid Zone (C\u00f4te d\u2018Ivoire)","volume":"50","author":"Kouadio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2014.1001796","article-title":"Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Coffee Beans in Benguet Province, Philippines","volume":"32","author":"Culliao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2004.00810.x","article-title":"Study of Ochratoxin A-Producing Strains in Coffee Processing","volume":"39","author":"Barel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-016-0240-3","article-title":"Survey of Philippine Coffee Beans for the Presence of Ochratoxigenic Fungi","volume":"32","author":"Alvindia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8884514","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8884514","article-title":"Fungal Diversity and Evaluation of Ochratoxin A Content of Coffee from Three Cameroonian Regions","volume":"2020","author":"Nganou","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"891","article-title":"Determination of Potentially Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) from Nayarit","volume":"27","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bari\u0161i\u0107, V., Jozinovi\u0107, A., Flanjak, I., \u0160ubari\u0107, D., Babi\u0107, J., Milicevi\u0107, B., Doko, K., and Ackar, D. (2020). Difficulties with Use of Cocoa Bean Shell in Food Production and High Voltage Electrical Discharge as a Possible Solution. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12103981"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"920","article-title":"Challenges in the Development of the Cocoa and Chocolate Industry in Indonesia: A Case Study in Madiun, East Java","volume":"5","author":"Praseptiangga","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIMS Agric. Food"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-474X(81)90015-1","article-title":"Mycoflora of Imported Cocoa Beans","volume":"17","author":"Niles","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Stored Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.11.017","article-title":"Filamentous Fungi Producing Ochratoxin a during Cocoa Processing in Cameroon","volume":"121","author":"Mounjouenpou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.04.021","article-title":"Mycobiota and Mycotoxin Producing Fungi from Cocoa Beans","volume":"125","author":"Gil","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2011.08.005","article-title":"Mycobiota of Cocoa: From Farm to Chocolate","volume":"28","author":"Copetti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.127560","article-title":"Integrated Proteomics and Metabolomics Analysis of Tea Leaves Fermented by Aspergillus Niger, Aspergillus Tamarii and Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"334","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"M809","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.12831","article-title":"Fungal Isolates from a Pu-Erh Type Tea Fermentation and Their Ability to Convert Tea Polyphenols to Theabrownins","volume":"80","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.07.024","article-title":"Identification and Quantification of Fungi and Mycotoxins from Pu-Erh Tea","volume":"166","author":"Haas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-4565.2010.00240.x","article-title":"Fungal Colonization of Pu-Erh Tea in Yunnan","volume":"30","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.03.025","article-title":"Characterization of Thermophilic Fungal Community Associated with Pile Fermentation of Pu-Erh Tea","volume":"227","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2017.09.020","article-title":"Yerba Mate: An Overview of Physiological Effects in Humans","volume":"38","author":"Riachi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"110","article-title":"Aislamiento de Cepas de Aspergillus Secci\u00f3n Nigri En La Yerba Mate Comercializada En Posadas (Misiones, Argentina) y Evaluaci\u00f3n de Su Potencial Ocratoxig\u00e9nico","volume":"45","author":"Castrillo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.18004\/investig.agrar.2016.junio.49-55","article-title":"Presencia de Hongos Filamentosos En Yerba Mate Compuesta y Eficiencia de Medios de Cultivo Para El Aislamiento de Aspergillus","volume":"18","author":"Vazquez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Investig. Agrar."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3062.2005.00085.x","article-title":"Are Your Patients at Risk? Fungal Contamination of Ilex Paraguariensis St. Hil (Yerba Mat\u00e9)","volume":"7","author":"Muehlbauer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00437651","article-title":"Mycoflora and Mycotoxins of Peanut (Arachis hypogaea, L.) Seeds in Egypt. 1-Sugar Fungi and Natural Occurrence of Mycotoxins","volume":"98","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.3923\/ijb.2008.349.360","article-title":"Mycobiota and Mycotoxins of Egyptian Peanut (Arachis hypogeae L.) Seeds","volume":"4","author":"Youssef","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kazemi, A., Ostadrahimi, A., Ashrafnejad, F., Sargheini, N., Mahdavi, R., Farshchian, M., and Mahluji, S. (2014). Mold Contamination of Untreated and Roasted with Salt Nuts (Walnuts, Peanuts and Pistachios) Sold at Markets of Tabriz, Iran. Jundishapur J. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.8751"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"395","article-title":"Mycological and Toxicological Analysis of Peanuts and Derivatives","volume":"33","author":"Lima","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Ci\u00eancias Farm. B\u00e1sica E Apl."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00275514.2020.1804235","article-title":"Phylogenetic Diversity and Prevalence of Mycoflora in Ready-to-Eat Supermarket and Roadside-Vended Peanuts","volume":"113","author":"Adetunji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mycologia"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2018.05.003","article-title":"Impact of Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Chickpea: A Review","volume":"23","author":"Ramirez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.3329\/jbas.v40i1.28323","article-title":"Prevalence of Fungi in Different Varieties of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Seeds in Storage","volume":"40","author":"Shamsi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Bangladesh Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4172\/2329-8863.1000229","article-title":"Food Seed Health of Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum L.) at Panchgaon, Gurgaon, India","volume":"4","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Crop Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.3923\/ajft.2011.613.630","article-title":"Microbial Contamination and Mycotoxins from Nuts in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","volume":"6","author":"Alwakeel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Food Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.5897\/AJB2003.000-1076","article-title":"Mycology and Spoilage of Retail Cashew Nuts","volume":"2","author":"Adebajo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Afr. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.11118\/actaun201058040073","article-title":"The Determination of Microscopic Fungi from Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) Fruits, Leaves, Crust and Pollen","volume":"58","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Univ. Agric. Silvic. Mendel. Brun."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007241827937","article-title":"Mycoflora and Mycotoxins in Brazilian Black Pepper, White Pepper and Brazil Nuts","volume":"149","author":"Freire","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/0964-8305(93)90021-S","article-title":"Sources and Mycoflora Associated with Some Sundried Vegetables in Storage","volume":"31","author":"Adebanjo","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(03)00085-0","article-title":"Black Aspergillus Species as Ochratoxin A Producers in Portuguese Wine Grapes","volume":"88","author":"Serra","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.11.041","article-title":"Specific Detection and Quantification of Aspergillus Flavus and Aspergillus Parasiticus in Wheat Flour by SYBR\u00ae Green Quantitative PCR","volume":"145","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.05.019","article-title":"Occurrence, Distribution and Contamination Levels of Heat-Resistant Moulds throughout the Processing of Pasteurized High-Acid Fruit Products","volume":"281","author":"Samapundo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2020.1739379","article-title":"Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus Isolated from Fruit Pulps for Biodiesel Production Using GC-MS Spectrometry","volume":"11","author":"Asci","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2014.11.025","article-title":"Toxigenic Penicillia Spoiling Frozen Chicken Nuggets","volume":"67","author":"Wigmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.03.018","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of Aspergillus fumigatus Isolated from Raw Cow Milk in Argentina: Molecular Typing of A. Fumigatus from Raw Cow Milk","volume":"275","author":"Pena","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2012.11.013","article-title":"Distribution and Toxigenicity of Aspergillus Section Flavi in Spices Marketed in Morocco","volume":"32","author":"Puel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado-Ospina, J., Molina-Hern\u00e1ndez, J.B., Chaves-L\u00f3pez, C., Romanazzi, G., and Paparella, A. (2021). The Role of Fungi in the Cocoa Production Chain and the Challenge of Climate Change. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7030202"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.171189","article-title":"Exposure to Resistant Fungi across Working Environments and Time","volume":"923","author":"Kofoed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1179\/2049396714Y.0000000055","article-title":"Occupational Exposure to Aspergillus and Aflatoxins among Food-Grain Workers in India","volume":"20","author":"Malik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3635","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129.2021.2013254","article-title":"Postharvest Strategies for Decontamination of Aflatoxins in Cereals","volume":"39","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S210","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1565489","article-title":"A Systematic Review on Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.): From Folk Uses to Pharmacological Applications","volume":"59","author":"Takooree","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"International Coffee Organization (2021). Historical Data on the Global Coffee Trade, International Coffee Organization (ICO)."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"ICCO (2022). Cocoa Market Report, International Cocoa Organization."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3062.2010.00554.x","article-title":"Drinking Yerba Mate Infusion: A Potential Risk Factor for Invasive Fungal Diseases?","volume":"12","author":"Vieira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-022-01286-w","article-title":"Airborne Transmission of Biological Agents within the Indoor Built Environment: A Multidisciplinary Review","volume":"16","author":"Argyropoulos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2018.11.006","article-title":"Fungal Spores: Highly Variable and Stress-Resistant Vehicles for Distribution and Spoilage","volume":"81","author":"Dijksterhuis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1007\/s12281-012-0097-7","article-title":"Azole-Resistant Invasive Aspergillosis: Relationship to Agriculture","volume":"6","author":"Stensvold","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Fungal Infect. Rep."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Gupta, V.K. (2016). Biodiversity of the Genus Aspergillus in Different Habitats. New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbr.2020.10.003","article-title":"The One Health Problem of Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus: Current Insights and Future Research Agenda","volume":"34","author":"Verweij","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fungal Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toepfer, S., Keniya, M.V., Lackner, M., and Monk, B.C. (2024). Azole Combinations and Multi-Targeting Drugs That Synergistically Inhibit Candidozyma auris. J. Fungi, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof10100698"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4357","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-48157-9","article-title":"Azoles Activate Type I and Type II Programmed Cell Death Pathways in Crop Pathogenic Fungi","volume":"15","author":"Schuster","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simyco.2021.100115","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillosis: From Basics to Clinics","volume":"100","author":"Arastehfar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stud. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.41.6.1364","article-title":"Itraconazole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"41","author":"Denning","year":"1997","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1507.090043","article-title":"Frequency and Evolution of Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus Associated with Treatment Failure","volume":"15","author":"Howard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Snelders, E., van der Lee, H.A.L., Kuijpers, J., Rijs, A.J.M.M., Varga, J., Samson, R.A., Mellado, E., Donders, A.R.T., Melchers, W.J.G., and Verweij, P.E. (2008). Emergence of Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus and Spread of a Single Resistance Mechanism. PLoS Med., 5.","DOI":"10.4016\/8254.01"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s12154-014-0121-1","article-title":"Resistance to Antifungals That Target CYP51","volume":"7","author":"Parker","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dks451","article-title":"High-Level Expression of cyp51B in Azole-Resistant Clinical Aspergillus fumigatus Isolates","volume":"68","author":"Buied","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camps, S.M.T., Dutilh, B.E., Arendrup, M.C., Rijs, A.J.M.M., Snelders, E., Huynen, M.A., Verweij, P.E., and Melchers, W.J.G. (2012). Discovery of a hapE Mutation That Causes Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus through Whole Genome Sequencing and Sexual Crossing. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050034"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkt075","article-title":"The cdr1B Efflux Transporter Is Associated with Non-Cyp51a-Mediated Itraconazole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"68","author":"Fraczek","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1889","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2410.180730","article-title":"Non-cyp51A Azole-Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus Isolates with Mutation in HMG-CoA Reductase","volume":"24","author":"Hagiwara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02101-16","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02101-16","article-title":"Screening and Characterization of a Non-cyp51A Mutation in an Aspergillus fumigatus Cox10 Strain Conferring Azole Resistance","volume":"61","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02234-15","article-title":"Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus Clinical Isolates from an Italian Culture Collection","volume":"60","author":"Lazzarini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02478-15","article-title":"First Detection of TR34 L98H and TR46 Y121F T289A Cyp51 Mutations in Aspergillus fumigatus Isolates in the United States","volume":"54","author":"Wiederhold","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1846","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1710.110226","article-title":"Clinical Implications of Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus, The Netherlands, 2007\u20132009","volume":"17","author":"Snelders","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1987","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.4607","article-title":"Does Agricultural Use of Azole Fungicides Contribute to Resistance in the Human Pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus?","volume":"73","author":"Hollomon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ885","article-title":"Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus: Can We Retain the Clinical Use of Mold-Active Antifungal Azoles?","volume":"62","author":"Verweij","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.3664","article-title":"Assessment of Selection and Resistance Risk for Demethylation Inhibitor Fungicides in Aspergillus\u2009Fumigatus in Agriculture and Medicine: A Critical Review","volume":"70","author":"Gisi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.3567","article-title":"Environmental Fungicides and Triazole Resistance in Aspergillus","volume":"70","author":"Bowyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.123200","article-title":"Increased Triazole-Resistance and cyp51A Mutations in Aspergillus fumigatus After Selection with a Combination of the Triazole Fungicides Difenoconazole and Propiconazole","volume":"400","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-006-5660-0","article-title":"Primary Invasive Aspergillosis of the Digestive Tract: Report of Two Cases and Review of the Literature","volume":"34","author":"Eggimann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2507.181625","article-title":"Environmental Hotspots for Azole Resistance Selection of Aspergillus fumigatus, the Netherlands","volume":"25","author":"Schoustra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/11\/4\/252\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:00:15Z","timestamp":1760029215000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/11\/4\/252"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["jof11040252"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof11040252","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]}}}