{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T18:03:12Z","timestamp":1792087392483,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sub-Saharan Africa, a region marked by enormous social and health inequalities, has the largest population infected with HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which are considered the main risk factors for fungal infections. At the same time, sub-Saharan Africa is the region of the world with the highest rates of helminth infections, whose immunomodulatory effects impair the host\u2019s immune responses to other microorganisms, including HIV and M. tuberculosis. Through this indirect way, helminth immune modulation could be another syndemic factor influencing the development of fungal infections. However, some epidemiological peculiarities of five fungal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, which we analyze in this paper, suggest that the influence of helminth immune modulation on the development of fungal infections there could also be direct. In light of the knowledge of all those interactions, any healthcare and epidemiological approach to Invasive Fungal Infections in sub-Saharan Africa should be carried out from a syndemic perspective that takes into account the ways in which social environments contribute to the clustering of infections, the pathways through which infecting microorganisms could interact biologically in each individual, influencing the development and evolution of the disease in course, and the ways in which those interactions complicate diagnosis, treatment, and control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof12020160","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T08:58:21Z","timestamp":1771837101000},"page":"160","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Helminth Immune Modulation and Invasive Fungal Infections in Sub-Saharan Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4980-4435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Fonte","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n, Diagn\u00f3stico y Referencia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical \u201cPedro Kour\u00ed\u201d, La Habana 11400, Cuba"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaxsier","family":"de Armas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Microbiolog\u00eda y Patolog\u00eda, Instituto de Patolog\u00eda Infecciosa y Experimental \u201cFrancisco Ruiz S\u00e1nchez\u201d, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44100, Mexico"},{"name":"Departamento de Anatom\u00eda Patol\u00f3gica, Instituto de Medicina Tropical \u201cPedro Kour\u00ed\u201d, La Habana 11400, Cuba"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2126-119X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9ctor R.","family":"P\u00e9rez-G\u00f3mez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Patolog\u00eda Infecciosa y Experimental \u201cFrancisco Ruiz S\u00e1nchez\u201d, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44100, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3166-5086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrique J.","family":"Calder\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Roc\u00edo\/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas\/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richardson, M.D., and Warnock, D.W. (2012). Fungal infection: Diagnosis and Management, Blackwell. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118321492"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-023-00926-2","article-title":"Diagnosis of invasive fungal infections: Challenges and recent developments","volume":"30","author":"Fang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ocansey, B.K., Kosmidis, C., Agyei, M., Dorkenoo, A.M., Ayanlowo, O.O., and Oladele, R.O. (2022). Histoplasmosis in Africa: Current perspectives, knowledge gaps, and research priorities. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010111"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e428","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00692-8","article-title":"Global incidence and mortality of severe fungal disease","volume":"24","author":"Denning","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.09.004","article-title":"The fight against mycoses in Africa: Are we making progress?","volume":"28","author":"Ibe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e464","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(21)00190-7","article-title":"The current state of clinical mycology in Africa: A European Confederation of Medical Mycology and International Society for Human and Animal Mycology survey","volume":"3","author":"Driemeyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.13044","article-title":"Bridging the knowledge gap on mycoses in Africa: Setting up a Pan-African Mycology Working Group","volume":"63","author":"Oladele","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3703","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.8.3703-3713.1999","article-title":"Host-pathogen interactions: Redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity","volume":"67","author":"Casadevall","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect Immun."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02063-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02063-17","article-title":"Immune-mediated damage completes the parabola: Cryptococcus neoformans pathogenesis can reflect the outcome of a weak or strong immune response","volume":"8","author":"Pirofski","year":"2017","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, H., Li, L., Huffman, A., Beverley, J., Hur, J., Merrell, E., Huang, H.-H., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., and Ong, E. (2022). A new framework for host-pathogen interaction research. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1066733"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pruksaphon, K., Amsri, A., Jeenkeawpieam, J., Thammasit, P., Nosanchuk, J.D., and Youngchim, S. (2024). The microbial damage and host response framework: Lesson learned from pathogenic survival trajectories and immunoinflammatory responses of Talaromyces marneffei infection. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1448729"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30003-X","article-title":"Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health","volume":"389","author":"Singer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bulled, N., and Singer, M. (2025). An Update on Syndemics: Editorial Comments. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/books978-3-7258-4644-3"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2736","article-title":"Effect of helminth-induced immunity on infections with microbial pathogens","volume":"14","author":"Salgame","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.05040-11","article-title":"Helminth Infections and Host Immune Regulation","volume":"25","author":"Maizels","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"303","article-title":"Looking beyond the induction of Th2 responses to explain immunomodulation by helminths","volume":"6","author":"Nutman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasite. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2017.11.015","article-title":"Recent advances in type-2-cell-mediated immunity: Insights from helminth infection","volume":"47","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13944","article-title":"Regulation of immunity and allergy by helminth parasites","volume":"75","author":"Maizels","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1042\/BCJ20253061","article-title":"Cytokines from parasites: Manipulating host responses by molecular mimicry","volume":"482","author":"Maizels","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110550","article-title":"Immune defence to invasive fungal infections: A comprehensive review","volume":"13","author":"Pathakumari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2025.04.051","article-title":"Immunity against fungal infections","volume":"35","author":"Casadevall","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-042617-053318","article-title":"Host control of fungal infections: Lessons from basic studies and human cohorts","volume":"36","author":"Lionakis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2023.114775","article-title":"Fungal infections: Immune defense, immunotherapies and vaccines","volume":"196","author":"Loh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jellmayer, J.A., Deus, A.F., Curti Gon\u00e7alves, M.R., Souza Ferreira, L., Manente, F.A., Pinho Caetano, L.S., Piccineli, F.L., Zamber\u00e7o dos Reis Genari, T., Sa\u00e7aki, B.d.C., and Pavicic Catalan de Oliveira Campos, T. (2025). Dendritic Cell-Based Therapeutic Immunization Induces Th1\/Th17 Responses and Reduces Fungal Burden in Experimental Sporotrichosis. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202509.0784.v1"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7920","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.174.12.7920","article-title":"Generation of antifungal effector CD8+ T cells in the absence of CD4+ T cells during Cryptococcus neoformans infection","volume":"174","author":"Lindell","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5389","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00809-09","article-title":"Th2 but not Th1 immune bias results in altered lung functions in a murine model of pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection","volume":"77","author":"Jain","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3073","article-title":"Protective and pathogenic functions of macrophage subsets","volume":"11","author":"Murray","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.5.6.1007","article-title":"Controlling pathogenic inflammation to fungi","volume":"5","author":"Romani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e66","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.107.5.e66","article-title":"Serologic evidence for Cryptococcus neoformans infection in early childhood","volume":"107","author":"Goldman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1002\/art.30314","article-title":"The anti-CD20 antibody rituximab reduces the Th17 cell response","volume":"63","author":"Lauwerys","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arthritis. Rheum."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hotez, P.J., and Kamath, A. (2009). Neglected tropical diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: Review of their prevalence, distribution, and disease 335 burden. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000412"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cadmus, S.I., Akinseye, V.O., Taiwo, B.O., Pinelli, E.O., van Soolingen, D., and Rhodes, S.G. (2020). Interactions between helminths and tuberculosis infections: Implications for tuberculosis diagnosis and vaccination in Africa. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008069"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"WHO (2023). WHO Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections 2023."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1863","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20091473","article-title":"Preexisting helminth infection induces inhibition of innate pulmonary anti-tuberculosis defense by engaging the IL-4 receptor pathway","volume":"208","author":"Potian","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jovvian, P., Pavan, N., Sridhar, R., Hanna, L.E., Nair, D., and Banurekha, V.V. (2014). Coincident helminth infection modulates systemic inflammation and immune activation in active pulmonary tuberculosis. PloS Neglect. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003289"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"UNDP (2019). UNDP Human Development Report 2019, UNDP."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"WHO (2025). Global Tuberculosis Report 2025."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"63","article-title":"Epidemiology of fungal diseases in Africa: A review of diagnostic drivers","volume":"7","author":"Bongomin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30243-8","article-title":"Global burden of disease of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: An updated analysis","volume":"17","author":"Rajasingham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heung, L.J. (2017). Innate Immune Responses to Cryptococcus. J. Fungi, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof3030035"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F., Yu, X., Li, M., Ning, X., and Zhou, K. (2025). Cryptococcal infection: Host immunity, immune evasion and emerging immunotherapeutic strategies. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1671873"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bongomin, F., Ekeng, B.E., Kibone, W., Nsenga, L., Olum, R., Itam-Eyo, A., Kuate, M.P.N., Pebolo, F.P., Davies, A.A., and Manga, M. (2022). Invasive Fungal Diseases in Africa: A Critical Literature Review. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8121236"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a019612","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a019612","article-title":"Adaptive immunity to fungi","volume":"5","author":"Verma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oladele, R.O., Ayanlowo, O.O., Richardson, M.D., and Denning, D.W. (2018). Histoplasmosis in Africa: An emerging or a neglected disease?. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006046"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"20499361211068592","article-title":"Histoplasmosis in African children: Clinical features, diagnosis and treatment","volume":"9","author":"Ekeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekeng, B.E., Edem, K., Amamilo, I., Panos, Z., Denning, D., and Oladele, R.O. (2021). Histoplasmosis in Children; HIV\/AIDS Not a Major Driver. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7070530"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MacInnes, R., and Warris, A. (2021). Paediatric Histoplasmosis 2000\u20132019: A Review of 83 Cases. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7060448"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunbar, A., Schauwvlieghe, A., Algoe van Hellemond, J.J., Reynders, M., Vandecasteele, S., Boelens, J., Depuydt, P., and Rijnders, B. (2020). Epidemiology of Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia and (Non-) use of Prophylaxis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00224"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myaa024","article-title":"Diagnosing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: A review of current methods and novel approaches","volume":"58","author":"Bateman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1010.030985","article-title":"Current epidemiology of Pneumocystis pneumonia","volume":"10","author":"Morris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-198903010-00012","article-title":"Absence of pneumocystosis in ugandan aids patients","volume":"3","author":"Serwadda","year":"1989","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(89)90290-3","article-title":"Pneumocystis carinii is not a major cause of pneumonia in HIV infected patients in Lusaka, Zambia","volume":"83","author":"Elvin","year":"1989","journal-title":"Trans. R Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"95","article-title":"Aids\u2013The baragwanath experience. Part III. HIV infection in adults at Baragwanath Hospital","volume":"82","author":"Karstaedt","year":"1992","journal-title":"S. Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasserman, S., Engel, M.E., Griesel, R., and Mendelson, M. (2016). Burden of Pneumocystis pneumonia in HIV-infected adults in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1809-3"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2011183219","article-title":"Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in developing countries","volume":"18","author":"Wissmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2004.09.005","article-title":"Isolates of Pneumocystis jirovecii from Harare show high genotypic similarity to isolates from London at the superoxide dismutase locus","volume":"99","author":"Miller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trans. R Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.gene.6363950","article-title":"Genetic influence of CXCR6 chemokine receptor alleles on PCP-mediated AIDS progression among African Americans","volume":"4","author":"Duggal","year":"2003","journal-title":"Genes Immun."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.21926\/obm.genet.1804045","article-title":"The relationship between Pneumocystis infection in animal and human hosts, and climatological and environmental air pollution factors: A systematic review","volume":"2","author":"Miller","year":"2018","journal-title":"OBM Genet."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fonte, L., Ginori, M., Calder\u00f3n, E.J., and de Armas, Y. (2022). Prevalence of Pneumocystosis in Sub-Saharan Africa and Helminth Immune Modulation. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8010045"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2016.10.003","article-title":"Pneumocystis infection alters the activation state of pulmonary macrophages","volume":"222","author":"Deckman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00939-16","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00939-16","article-title":"Differential macrophage polarization from Pneumocystis in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed hosts: Potential adjunctive therapy during pneumonia","volume":"85","author":"Nandakumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fonte, L., Acosta, A., Sarmiento, M.E., Ginori, M., Garc\u00eda, G., and Norazmi, M.N. (2020). COVID-19 lethality in Sub-Saharan Africa and helminth immune modulation. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.574910"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e93156","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.93156","article-title":"Immunity against fungi","volume":"2","author":"Lionakis","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bongomin, F., Gago, S., Oladele, R., and Denning, D. (2017). Global and Multi-National Prevalence of Fungal Diseases-Estimate Precision. J. Fungi, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof3040057"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.05.002","article-title":"During Aspergillus infection, monocyte-derived DCs, neutrophils, and plasmacytoid DCs enhance innate immune defense through CXCR3-dependent crosstalk","volume":"28","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tracy, M.C., Okorie, C.U.A., Foley, E.A., and Moss, R.B. (2016). Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis. J. Fungi, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof2020017"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwizera, R., Musaazi, J., Meya, D.B., Worodria, W., Bwanga, F., Kajumbula, H., Fowler, S.J., Kirenga, B.J., Gore, R., and Denning, D.W. (2019). Burden of fungal asthma in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0216568"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"20499361211039040","article-title":"Prevalence of Aspergillus fumigatus skin positivity in adults without an apparent\/known atopic disease in Uganda","volume":"8","author":"Kwizera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vinayagamoorthy, K., Gangavaram, D.R., Skiada, A., and Prakash, H. (2023). Emergomycosis, an Emerging Thermally Dimorphic Fungal Infection: A Systematic Review. J. Fungi, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof9101039"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2022.101313","article-title":"Review: Emergomycosis","volume":"33","author":"Reddy","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mycol. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samaddar, A., and Sharma, A. (2021). Emergomycosis, an Emerging Systemic Mycosis in Immunocompromised Patients: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Front. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.670731"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoft, M.A., Duvenage, L., Salie, S., Keeton, R., Botha, A., Schwartz, I.S., Govender, N.P., Brown, G.D., and Hoving, J.C. (2024). The pathogenesis of experimental Emergomycosis in mice. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011850"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2313","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S403797","article-title":"Emergomycosis in Africa: Time to Pay Attention to This Emerging Deadly Fungal Infection","volume":"16","author":"Ibe","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Gen. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwartz, I.S., McLoud, J.D., Berman, D., Botha, A., Lerm, B., Colebunders, R., Levetin, E., and Kenyon, C. (2018). Molecular detection of airborne Emergomyces africanus, a thermally dimorphic fungal pathogen, in Cape Town, South Africa. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006174"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.supp.2020.35.2.25639","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic and antiretrovirals (ARV) availability in Nigeria: Recommendations to prevent shortages","volume":"35","author":"Dada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pan. Afr. Med. J."}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/2\/160\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T09:27:18Z","timestamp":1771838838000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/2\/160"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["jof12020160"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof12020160","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]}}}