{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T04:05:42Z","timestamp":1775448342494,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775174400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aspergillosis is a group of different invasive and non-invasive diseases affecting the lung and other organs, caused by species of the genus Aspergillus. Additionally, complications associated with treatment and the increasing emergence of antifungal-resistant strains of Aspergillus spp. are high-impact problems. For these reasons, a combined approach of diagnostic tests is necessary to reach an accurate and timely diagnosis. This review aims to describe some biomarkers and their usefulness for the diagnosis of aspergillosis. Among the findings obtained in different studies, the nature, analytical performance and usefulness for diagnosis in different clinical forms of this disease are described. Currently, the main biomarkers used in the diagnosis of Aspergillus disease fall into three categories: membrane components, specific DNA sequences and metabolic products. The detection of biomarkers is one of the most important innovations of recent decades in the field of medical mycology, as it is a diagnostic aid that allows the timely detection of infections and decreases the time of administration of antifungal therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof12040259","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T02:06:21Z","timestamp":1775441181000},"page":"259","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Aspergillosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Laura","family":"Rivera-Agudelo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Micolog\u00eda M\u00e9dica y Experimental, Corporaci\u00f3n para Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas CIB-UdeA-UPB-UDES, Medell\u00edn 050010, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8749-9809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego H.","family":"C\u00e1ceres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IMMY, 2701 Corporate Centre Dr, Norman, OK 73069, USA"},{"name":"Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc\/CWZ, 6525GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Studies in Translational Microbiology and Emerging Diseases (MICROS) Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota 111221, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5094-8260","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juli\u00e1n C.","family":"Arango-Rinc\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Micolog\u00eda M\u00e9dica y Experimental, Corporaci\u00f3n para Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas CIB-UdeA-UPB-UDES, Medell\u00edn 050010, Colombia"},{"name":"Escuela de Microbiolog\u00eda, Universidad de Antioquia, Medell\u00edn 50010, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julio C.","family":"Jaramillo-Alzate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo Inmunolog\u00eda celular e inmunogen\u00e9tica (GICIG), Universidad de Antioquia, Medell\u00edn 50010, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alejandra","family":"Zuluaga-Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Micolog\u00eda M\u00e9dica y Experimental, Corporaci\u00f3n para Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas CIB-UdeA-UPB-UDES, Medell\u00edn 050010, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7750-2461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1lvaro L.","family":"R\u00faa-Giraldo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Micolog\u00eda M\u00e9dica y Experimental, Corporaci\u00f3n para Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas CIB-UdeA-UPB-UDES, Medell\u00edn 050010, Colombia"},{"name":"Grupo de Microbiolog\u00eda Ambiental, Universidad de Antioquia, Medell\u00edn 50010, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw326","article-title":"Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Aspergillosis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America","volume":"63","author":"Patterson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infetious Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.3390\/jof3040057","article-title":"Global and Multi-National Prevalence of Fungal Diseases\u2014Estimate Precision","volume":"3","author":"Bongomin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fungi"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goyeneche-Garc\u00eda, A., Rodr\u00edguez-Oyuela, J., S\u00e1nchez, G., and Firacative, C. (2021). Clinical and Epidemiological Profile of Patients with Invasive Aspergillosis from a Fourth Level Hospital in Bogota, Colombia: A Retrospective Study. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7121092"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00140-18","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00140-18","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillosis in 2019","volume":"33","author":"Chamilos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2018.06.029","article-title":"The spectrum of pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"141","author":"Kanj","year":"2018","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simyco.2020.05.002","article-title":"Classification of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces and related genera (Eurotiales): An overview of families, genera, subgenera, sections, series and species","volume":"95","author":"Houbraken","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stud. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3114\/sim.2024.107.01","article-title":"A review of recently introduced Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces and other Eurotiales species","volume":"Volume 107","author":"Visagie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Studies in Mycology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a019786","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a019786","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus and Related Species","volume":"5","author":"Sugui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Thornton, C.R. (2020). Detection of the \u2018Big Five\u2019 mold killers of humans: Aspergillus, Fusarium, Lomentospora, Scedosporium and Mucormycetes. Advances in Applied Microbiology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2025.07.016","article-title":"Beyond guidelines: What do I need to know when dealing with fungal diagnostics?","volume":"31","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/2260.2019","article-title":"Biomarkers of fungal infection: Expert opinion on the current situations","volume":"33","author":"Bouza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Espa\u00f1ola Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2019.03.027","article-title":"Menacing Mold: Recent Advances in Aspergillus Pathogenesis and Host Defense","volume":"431","author":"Tischler","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.2500\/aap.2019.40.4262","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"40","author":"Patel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Proc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.13253","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of Aspergillus-specific antibodies for chronic pulmonary aspergillosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"64","author":"Anan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S121","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1751","article-title":"EORTC\/MSGERC Definitions of Invasive Fungal Diseases: Summary of Activities of the Intensive Care Unit Working Group","volume":"72","author":"Bassetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feys, S., Almyroudi, M.P., Braspenning, R., Lagrou, K., Spriet, I., Dimopoulos, G., and Wauters, J. (2021). A Visual and Comprehensive Review on COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CAPA). J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7121067"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06091-6","article-title":"Review of influenza-associated pulmonary aspergillosis in ICU patients and proposal for a case definition: An expert opinion","volume":"46","author":"Verweij","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diii.2015.01.005","article-title":"Pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"96","author":"Chabi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diagn. Interv. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"262","article-title":"Section 1. Colombian consensus on the diagnosis and follow-up of invasive aspergillosis and Aspergillus disease in adult and pediatric patients","volume":"26","author":"Berrio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infectio"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.01.002","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of Aspergillus diseases: Executive summary of the 2017 ESCMID-ECMM-ERS guideline","volume":"24","author":"Ullmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-021-00827-3","article-title":"New clinical algorithm including fungal biomarkers to better diagnose probable invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in ICU","volume":"11","author":"Hamam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00583-2015","article-title":"Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis: Rationale and clinical guidelines for diagnosis and management","volume":"47","author":"Denning","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00538-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00538-19","article-title":"Evaluation of LDBio Aspergillus ICT Lateral Flow Assay for IgG and IgM Antibody Detection in Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis","volume":"57","author":"Richardson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piarroux, R.P., Romain, T., Martin, A., Vainqueur, D., Vitte, J., Lachaud, L., Gangneux, J.-P., Gabriel, F., Fillaux, J., and Ranque, S. (2019). Multicenter Evaluation of a Novel Immunochromatographic Test for Anti-aspergillus IgG Detection. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00012"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ueki, S., Hebisawa, A., Kitani, M., Asano, K., and Neves, J.S. (2018). Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis\u2014A Luminal Hypereosinophilic Disease with Extracellular Trap Cell Death. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02346"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahid, M., Ahmad, I., Malik, A., Jahan, N., and Tripathi, T. (2010). Laboratory Diagnosis of Fungal Infections: An Overview. Combating Fungal Infections, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-12173-9_9"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2018.07.001","article-title":"Detection of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients by combined use of conventional culture, galactoman-nan, 1-3-beta-D-glucan and Aspergillus specific nested polymerase chain reaction in a prospective pilot study","volume":"47","author":"Boch","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2017.06.016","article-title":"Comparative performance of Aspergillus galactomannan ELISA and PCR in sputum from patients with ABPA and CPA","volume":"140","author":"Fayemiwo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2019.04.006","article-title":"The role of Aspergillus fumigatus polysaccharides in host\u2013pathogen interactions","volume":"52","author":"Zacharias","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700","DOI":"10.1080\/09168451.2016.1177446","article-title":"Cell wall structure and biogenesis in Aspergillus species","volume":"80","author":"Yoshimi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1086\/510535","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus and the Kinetics of Galactomannan in an In Vitro Model of Early Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis: Implications for Antifungal Therapy","volume":"195","author":"Hope","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2018.08.005","article-title":"The performance of galactomannan in combination with 1,3-\u03b2-D-glucan or aspergillus-lateral flow device for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: Evidences from 13 studies","volume":"93","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02626-21","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02626-21","article-title":"Comparison of the Performance of Two Galactomannan Detection Tests: Platelia Aspergillus Ag and Aspergillus Galactomannan Ag Virclia Monotest","volume":"10","author":"Calero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.riam.2017.07.004","article-title":"Diagnosis of invasive fungal disease in hospitalized patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"35","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Iberoam. Micol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201407-1275OC","article-title":"Novel Tests for Diagnosis of Invasive Aspergillosis in Patients with Underlying Respiratory Diseases","volume":"190","author":"Prattes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2021.10.018","article-title":"Fungal biomarker monitoring and CT scans for early detection of invasive fungal disease in neutropenic hematological patients","volume":"84","author":"Oyake","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwu091","article-title":"Significant structural change in both O- and N-linked carbohydrate moieties of the antigenic galactomannan from Aspergillus fumigatus grown under different culture conditions","volume":"25","author":"Kudoh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmm.IJMM_18_366","article-title":"Evaluation of Biomarkers: Galactomannan and 1,3-Beta-D-Glucan Assay for the Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Infections in Immunocompromised Patients from a Tertiary Care Centre","volume":"36","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"CD007394","article-title":"Galactomannan detection for invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients","volume":"2015","author":"Leeflang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.4103\/JLP.JLP_127_16","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of galactomannan test with bronchoalveolar lavage and serum for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in patients with hematological malignancies","volume":"9","author":"Gupta","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Lab. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"e95230","article-title":"A prospective observational study on the evaluation of the galactomannan test in the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis","volume":"17","author":"Kumari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.15.140","article-title":"Diagnostics and susceptibility testing in Aspergillus","volume":"11","year":"2016","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1080\/13693780802475212","article-title":"Detection of 2-pentylfuran in the breath of patients with Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"47","author":"Chambers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhetariya, P.J., Madan, T., Sarma, P.U., and Prakash, P.Y. (2017). Current Approaches Towards Development of Molecular Markers in Diagnostics of Invasive Aspergillosis. Molecular Markers in Mycology. Fungal Biology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-34106-4_13"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24465","article-title":"An investigation into biomarkers for the diagnosis of ABPA and aspergillus disease in cystic fibrosis","volume":"54","author":"Keown","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00535-20","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00535-20","article-title":"Biotinylated Surfome Profiling Identifies Potential Biomarkers for Diagnosis and Therapy of Aspergillus fumigatus Infection","volume":"5","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arastehfar, A., Carvalho, A., van de Veerdonk, F.L., Jenks, J.D., Koehler, P., Krause, R., Cornely, O.A., Perlin, D.S., Lass-Fl\u00f6rl, C., and Hoenigl, M. (2020). COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CAPA)\u2014From Immunology to Treatment. J. Fungi, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof6020091"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1634","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1298","article-title":"A National Strategy to Diagnose Coronavirus Disease 2019 Associated Invasive Fungal Disease in the Intensive Care Unit","volume":"73","author":"White","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2020.1820864","article-title":"Point-of-care diagnostics for invasive aspergillosis: Nearing the finish line","volume":"20","author":"Jenks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e21721","article-title":"Diagnostic performance and longitudinal analysis of fungal biomarkers in COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"9","author":"Er","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.30699\/ijp.2025.2044324.3369","article-title":"The value of the galactomannan test in diagnosing COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis: A review","volume":"20","author":"Salehi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Iran. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida-Paes, R., Almeida, M.d.A., de Macedo, P.M., Caceres, D.H., and Zancop\u00e9-Oliveira, R.M. (2022). Performance of Two Commercial Assays for the Detection of Serum Aspergillus Galactomannan in Non-Neutropenic Patients. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8070741"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01821-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01821-18","article-title":"Utility of serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid galactomannan in diagnosis of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"57","author":"Sehgal","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.33073\/pjm-2021-003","article-title":"The Pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus, Host Defense Mechanisms, and the Development of AFMP4 Antigen as a Vaccine","volume":"70","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pol. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2019.03.006","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus Mnn9 is responsible for mannan synthesis and required for covalent linkage of mannoprotein to the cell wall","volume":"128","author":"Du","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salzer, H.J.F., Prattes, J., Flick, H., Reimann, M., Heyckendorf, J., Kalsdorf, B., Obersteiner, S., Gaede, K.I., Herzmann, C., and Johnson, G.L. (2018). Evaluation of Galactomannan Testing, the Aspergillus-Specific Lateral-Flow Device Test and Levels of Cytokines in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid for Diagnosis of Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02223"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2018.01.002","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of pulmonary invasive fungal infection among adult patients with hematological malignancy in a medical centre in Taiwan, 2008\u20132013","volume":"53","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.12877","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus devoid of cell wall \u03b2-1,3-glucan is viable, massively sheds galactomannan and is killed by septum formation inhibitors","volume":"95","author":"Dichtl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-016-6045-4","article-title":"Recent advances in the understanding of the Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall","volume":"54","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3966","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.05493-11","article-title":"Neutrophils Produce Interleukin 17A (IL-17A) in a Dectin-1- and IL-23-Dependent Manner during Invasive Fungal Infection","volume":"79","author":"Werner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2581","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1300748","article-title":"The RodA Hydrophobin on Aspergillus fumigatus Spores Masks Dectin-1\u2013 and Dectin-2\u2013Dependent Responses and Enhances Fungal Survival In Vivo","volume":"191","author":"Leal","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gravelat, F.N., Beauvais, A., Liu, H., Lee, M.J., Snarr, B.D., Chen, D., Xu, W., Kravtsov, I., Hoareau, C.M.Q., and Vanier, G. (2013). Aspergillus Galactosaminogalactan Mediates Adherence to Host Constituents and Conceals Hyphal \u03b2-Glucan from the Immune System. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003575"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"CD009833","article-title":"(1-3)-\u03b2-D-glucan testing for the detection of invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised or critically ill people","volume":"7","author":"White","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eimc.2012.01.019","article-title":"Diagn\u00f3stico de laboratorio de la enfermedad f\u00fangica invasora","volume":"30","year":"2012","journal-title":"Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2014.06.009","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy of serum 1,3-\u03b2-D-glucan for invasive fungal infection: Focus on cutoff levels","volume":"48","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamoth, F. (2016). Galactomannan and 1,3-\u03b2-d-Glucan Testing for the Diagnosis of Invasive Aspergillosis. J. Fungi, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof2030022"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2012.09.005","article-title":"The function and evolution of the Aspergillus genome","volume":"21","author":"Gibbons","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01904-10","article-title":"Ribosomal and Mitochondrial DNA Target for Real-Time PCR Diagnosis of Invasive Aspergillosis","volume":"49","author":"Millon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2017.03.025","article-title":"A prospective study of fungal biomarkers to improve management of invasive fungal diseases in a mixed specialty critical care unit","volume":"40","author":"Talento","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02073-08","article-title":"Strain-Dependent Variation in 18S Ribosomal DNA Copy Numbers in Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"47","author":"Herrera","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2016.05.013","article-title":"Previously unknown species of Aspergillus","volume":"22","author":"Gautier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Gao, L., Ding, Y., Xu, Y., Zhou, M., Huang, W., Jing, Y., Li, H., Wang, L., and Yu, L. (2013). Establishment and application of real-time quantitative PCR for diagnosing invasive aspergillosis via the blood in hematological patients: Targeting a specific sequence of Aspergillus 28S-ITS2. BMC Infect. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-13-255"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egger, M., Jenks, J.D., Hoenigl, M., and Prattes, J. (2020). Blood Aspergillus PCR: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. J. Fungi, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof6010018"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"947","article-title":"Aspergillus PCR: One step closer to standardization","volume":"61","author":"White","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.13428","article-title":"Aspergillus-PCR in bronchoalveolar lavage\u2014diagnostic accuracy for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients","volume":"65","author":"Mikulska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03189-12","article-title":"Evaluation of Real-Time PCR, Galactomannan Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), and a Novel Lateral-Flow Device for Diagnosis of Invasive Aspergillosis","volume":"51","author":"White","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1111\/bjh.12285","article-title":"Combined real-time PCR and galactomannan surveillance improves diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in high risk patients with haematological malignancies","volume":"161","author":"Rogers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00467-14","article-title":"Performance of Galactomannan, Beta-D-Glucan, Aspergillus Lateral-Flow Device, Conventional Culture, and PCR Tests with Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid for Diagnosis of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis","volume":"52","author":"Hoenigl","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3842","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.05316-11","article-title":"Evaluation of Aspergillus PCR Protocols for Testing Serum Specimens","volume":"49","author":"White","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S60","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myx091","article-title":"Diagnosis of aspergillosis by PCR: Clinical considerations and technical tips","volume":"56","author":"Barnes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lackner, M., and Lass-Fl\u00f6rl, C. (2017). Commercial Molecular Tests for Fungal Diagnosis from a Practical Point of View. Human Fungal Pathogen Identification. Methods in Molecular Biology, Humana Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6515-1_4"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.09.70","article-title":"Current Status and Future Perspectives on Molecular and Serological Methods in Diag-nostic Mycology","volume":"4","author":"Lau","year":"2009","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2018.09.006","article-title":"Triacetylfusarinine C: A urine biomarker for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis","volume":"78","author":"Hoenigl","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2021.114384","article-title":"Generation and characterisation of a semi-synthetic siderophore-immunogen conjugate and a derivative recombinant triacetylfusarinine C\u2013specific monoclonal antibody with fungal diagnostic application","volume":"632","author":"Moloney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carroll, C.S., Amankwa, L.N., Pinto, L.J., Fuller, J.D., and Moore, M.M. (2016). Detection of a Serum Siderophore by LC-MS\/MS as a Potential Biomarker of Invasive Aspergillosis. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0155451"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2020.113473","article-title":"Microbiota-derived metabolites as diagnostic markers for respiratory fungal infections","volume":"189","author":"Carvalho","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2019.1559052","article-title":"Breath analysis in respiratory diseases: State-of-the-art and future perspectives","volume":"19","author":"Finamore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1039\/b906856b","article-title":"JEM Spotlight: Fungi, mycotoxins and microbial volatile organic compounds in mouldy interiors from water-damaged buildings","volume":"11","author":"Polizzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Environ. Monit."}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/4\/259\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T02:42:00Z","timestamp":1775443320000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/4\/259"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["jof12040259"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof12040259","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]}}}