{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T12:52:13Z","timestamp":1785761533083,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Fungi","JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The continuous increase in vulvovaginal candidiasis cases worldwide is a global health concern that requires being addressed using innovative approaches. The current incidence of recurrent cases of the disease is particularly alarming, and this is not predicted to decrease in the coming years. Virulence factors of Candida spp. are still not entirely understood and the relevance of resistance to antifungal treatment, as well as differences between Candida species, must be considered when designing therapies. In this review, the key concepts of vulvovaginal candidiasis are introduced, and the potential of nanotechnology-based approaches being developed for mitigating the infection is highlighted. Several nanosystems proposed in recent years (including drug-loaded nanoparticles and intrinsically antifungal nanomaterials) are presented and their efficacy, as tested in animal models, is discussed in detail. Limitations of in vivo models are also specified and considerations for future work are addressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof12080562","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T11:50:21Z","timestamp":1785757821000},"page":"562","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nanomedicine in the Topical Management of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: An Overview of In Vivo Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Adriana","family":"Lima","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"i3S\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS\u2014Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FEUP\u2014Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2317-2759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"das Neves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"i3S\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"IUCS\u2014Instituto Universit\u00e1rio de Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, CESPU, Rua Central de Gandra 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sustr, V., Foessleitner, P., Kiss, H., and Farr, A. (2020). Vulvovaginal Candidosis: Current Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives. J. Fungi, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof6040267"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpha.2022.03.001","article-title":"Common Infections Encountered in Obstetrics\/Gynecology","volume":"7","author":"Rolfs","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physician Assist. Clin."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)60917-9","article-title":"Vulvovaginal candidosis","volume":"369","author":"Sobel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e339","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30103-8","article-title":"Global burden of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis: A systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Denning","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e428","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00692-8","article-title":"Global incidence and mortality of severe fungal disease","volume":"24","author":"Denning","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donders, G., Sziller, I.O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J.M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J.A., Szabo, B., and Cepulien\u00e9, R. (2022). Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.934353"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lobo, M., Cerqueira, C., Rodrigues, A.G., and Lisboa, C. (2025). Recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis and its underlying mechanisms: A systematic review. J. Fungi, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof11050357"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1111\/jog.15267","article-title":"Vulvovaginal candidiasis: An overview of mycological, clinical, and immunological aspects","volume":"48","author":"Jafarzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satora, M., Grunwald, A., Zaremba, B., Frankowska, K., Zak, K., Tarkowski, R., and Kulak, K. (2023). Treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis\u2014An overview of Guidelines and the latest treatment methods. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12165376"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaf673","article-title":"State-of-the-art review: Managing vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"82","author":"Sobel","year":"2026","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2021.113855","article-title":"Nanomedicines for the topical treatment of vulvovaginal infections: Addressing the challenges of antimicrobial resistance","volume":"178","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2014.04.033","article-title":"Nanoparticle-based drug delivery to the vagina: A review","volume":"190","author":"Ensign","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2014.12.004","article-title":"Polymer-based nanocarriers for vaginal drug delivery","volume":"92","author":"Nunes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesquita, L., Galante, J., Nunes, R., Sarmento, B., and das Neves, J. (2019). Pharmaceutical vehicles for vaginal and rectal administration of anti-HIV microbicide nanosystems. Pharmaceutics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics11030145"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125978","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2025.125978","article-title":"Insights on nanomaterials-fungi interactions: Probing engineering principles for developing antifungal nanomedicines","volume":"682","author":"Rocha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-020-0090-8","article-title":"Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery","volume":"20","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-025-03113-7","article-title":"A systematic review of nanocarriers used in medicine and beyond\u2014Definition and categorization framework","volume":"23","author":"Gressler","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37383","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c07366","article-title":"The Nanocarrier Landscape horizontal line Evaluating Key Drug Delivery Vehicles and Their Capabilities: A Translational Perspective","volume":"17","author":"Fathi","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fuaa060","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuaa060","article-title":"The impact of the Fungus-Host-Microbiota interplay upon Candida albicans infections: Current knowledge and new perspectives","volume":"45","author":"Kaune","year":"2021","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"189","article-title":"Candida albicans the main opportunistic pathogenic fungus in humans","volume":"55","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ardizzoni, A., Wheeler, R.T., and Pericolini, E. (2021). It takes two to tango: How a dysregulation of the innate immunity, coupled with Candida virulence, triggers VVC onset. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.692491"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spaggiari, L., Ardizzoni, A., Ricchi, F., Pedretti, N., Squartini Ramos, C.A., Squartini Ramos, G.B., Kenno, S., De Seta, F., and Pericolini, E. (2024). Fungal burden, dimorphic transition and candidalysin: Role in Candida albicans-induced vaginal cell damage and mitochondrial activation in vitro. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0303449"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosati, D., Bruno, M., Jaeger, M., Ten Oever, J., and Netea, M.G. (2020). Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: An Immunological Perspective. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8020144"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srb, N., Talapko, J., Mestrovic, T., Fures, R., Stupnisek, M., Srb, A.M., and Skrlec, I. (2025). A comprehensive overview of Candida albicans as the leading pathogen in vulvovaginal candidiasis. J. Fungi, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof11090632"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makanjuola, O., Bongomin, F., and Fayemiwo, S.A. (2018). An update on the roles of non-albicans Candida species in vulvovaginitis. J. Fungi, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof4040121"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7525-11-169","article-title":"Subjective health status and health-related quality of life among women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis (RVVC) in Europe and the USA","volume":"11","author":"Aballea","year":"2013","journal-title":"Health Qual. Life Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-019-05228-3","article-title":"Influence of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis on quality of life issues","volume":"300","author":"Fukazawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vieira-Baptista, P., Stockdale, C.K., and Sobel, J. (2023). International Society for the Study of Vulvovaginal Disease Recommendations for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Vaginitis, Admedic.","DOI":"10.59153\/adm.rdtv.001"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.3109\/1040841X.2015.1091805","article-title":"Vulvovaginal candidiasis: Epidemiology, microbiology and risk factors","volume":"42","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2015.06.067","article-title":"Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"214","author":"Sobel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whaley, S.G., Berkow, E.L., Rybak, J.M., Nishimoto, A.T., Barker, K.S., and Rogers, P.D. (2017). Azole antifungal resistance in Candida albicans and emerging non-albicans Candida species. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.02173"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01564-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01564-17","article-title":"Update from a 12-year nationwide fungemia surveillance: Increasing intrinsic and acquired resistance causes concern","volume":"56","author":"Astvad","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1080\/14656566.2018.1476490","article-title":"Current treatment options for vulvovaginal candidiasis caused by azole-resistant Candida species","volume":"19","author":"Sobel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1097\/IM9.0000000000000095","article-title":"An Epidemiologic Analysis of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis and Antifungal Susceptibilities","volume":"4","author":"Erinmez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Microbes Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-021-01571-5","article-title":"Ibrexafungerp: First approval","volume":"81","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/10600280221091301","article-title":"Ibrexafungerp in the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"57","author":"Barnes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-200868130-00002","article-title":"Local treatment of vulvovaginal candidosis: General and practical considerations","volume":"68","author":"Pinto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lacroix, G., Gouyer, V., Gottrand, F., and Desseyn, J.-L. (2020). The Cervicovaginal Mucus Barrier. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21218266"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2017.11.001","article-title":"Mucus models to evaluate the diffusion of drugs and particles","volume":"124","author":"Lock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0911748107","article-title":"Nanoparticles reveal that human cervicovaginal mucus is riddled with pores larger than viruses","volume":"107","author":"Lai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"57","article-title":"Nanomedicine in the development of anti-HIV microbicides","volume":"103","author":"Nunes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5058","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CS00948A","article-title":"Molecular and cellular cues governing nanomaterial\u2013mucosae interactions: From nanomedicine to nanotoxicology","volume":"49","author":"Sosnik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2016-0047","article-title":"Nanoparticles coated with high molecular weight PEG penetrate mucus and provide uniform vaginal and colorectal distribution in vivo","volume":"11","author":"Maisel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2018.12.046","article-title":"Development of a mucoinert progesterone nanosuspension for safer and more effective prevention of preterm birth","volume":"295","author":"Hoang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc6245","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abc6245","article-title":"Enhanced drug delivery to the reproductive tract using nanomedicine reveals therapeutic options for prevention of preterm birth","volume":"13","author":"Zierden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbsr.2024.100702","article-title":"Identifying changes in vaginal fluid using SERS: Advancing diagnosis of vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"46","author":"Berus","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Biosensing Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2022.101329","article-title":"Simulated vaginal fluid: Candida resistant strains\u2019 biofilm characterization and vapor phase of essential oil effect","volume":"33","author":"Fernandes","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.02.029","article-title":"Clotrimazole-loaded N-(2-hydroxy)-propyl-3-trimethylammonium, O-palmitoyl chitosan nanoparticles for topical treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"125","author":"Facchinatto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2015.10.013","article-title":"Design and studies of multiple mechanism of anti-Candida activity of a new potent Trp-rich peptide dendrimers","volume":"105","author":"Staniszewska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procbio.2020.03.003","article-title":"In Vitro and In Vivo anticandidal efficacy of green synthesized gold nanoparticles using Spirulina maxima polysaccharide","volume":"92","author":"Dananjaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Process Biochem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2023.10.017","article-title":"Gold nanoparticle adsorption alters the cell stiffness and cell wall bio-chemical landscape of Candida albicans fungal cells","volume":"654","author":"Penman","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Colloid. Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2021.104937","article-title":"Silver nanoparticles offer a synergistic effect with fluconazole against fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans by abrogating drug efflux pumps and increasing endogenous ROS","volume":"93","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia-Marin, L.E., Juarez-Moreno, K., Vilchis-Nestor, A.R., and Castro-Longoria, E. (2022). Highly antifungal activity of biosynthesized copper oxide nanoparticles against Candida albicans. Nanomaterials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12213856"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2017.11.003","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species-independent apoptotic pathway by gold nanoparticles in Candida albicans","volume":"207","author":"Seong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Cerdeira, C., Mart\u00ednez-Herrera, E., Carnero-Gregorio, M., L\u00f3pez-Barcenas, A., Fabbrocini, G., Fida, M., El-Samahy, M., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Cesp\u00f3n, J.L. (2020). Pathogenesis and clinical relevance of Candida biofilms in vulvovaginal candidiasis. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.544480"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2014.07.061","article-title":"Probing the size limit for nanomedicine penetration into Burkholderia multivorans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms","volume":"195","author":"Forier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123236","article-title":"Mucus-penetrating nanomotor system strengthens mucosal immune response to in situ bacterial vaccine against severe bacterial pneumonia","volume":"320","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841X.2020.1803208","article-title":"Nanosystems against candidiasis: A review of studies performed over the last two decades","volume":"46","author":"Araujo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"do Carmo, P.H.F., Garcia, M.T., Figueiredo-Godoi, L.M.A., Lage, A.C.P., Silva, N.S.D., and Junqueira, J.C. (2023). Metal nanoparticles to combat Candida albicans infections: An update. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11010138"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02841-6","article-title":"The progress and future of the treatment of Candida albicans infections based on nanotechnology","volume":"22","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/s40506-025-00284-7","article-title":"Current progression in nanomedicine for the treatment of Candida albicans infections","volume":"17","author":"Chopra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2018.11.048","article-title":"Miconazole loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles for local treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis fungal infections","volume":"174","author":"Amaral","year":"2019","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"myad113","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myad113","article-title":"Fluconazole and propolis co-encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles for the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis in a murine model","volume":"61","author":"Costa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2023.106508","article-title":"Miconazole-loaded nanoparticles coated with hyaluronic acid to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"188","author":"Teixeira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01800-x","article-title":"Low intensity ultrasound-mediated drug-loaded nanoparticles intravaginal drug delivery: An effective synergistic therapy scheme for treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"21","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115608","article-title":"Amphotericin B-loaded Eudragit RL100 nanoparticles coated with hyaluronic acid for the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"230","author":"Melo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2018.06.017","article-title":"Amphotericin B-Loaded Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Nanofibers: An Alternative Therapy Scheme for Local Treatment of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis","volume":"107","author":"Souza","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1080\/1061186X.2018.1434660","article-title":"Development and anti-Candida evaluation of the vaginal delivery system of amphotericin B nanosuspension-loaded thermogel","volume":"26","author":"Ci","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Drug Target."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2021.112304","article-title":"Design of transfersomal nanocarriers of nystatin for combating vulvovaginal candidiasis; A different prospective","volume":"211","author":"Hady","year":"2022","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2018.10.013","article-title":"Development of emulgel formulation for vaginal candidiasis: Pharmaceutical characterization, in vitro and in vivo evaluation","volume":"48","author":"Srivastava","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alkhanjaf, A.A.M., Athar, M.T., Ullah, Z., Umar, A., and Shaikh, I.A. (2022). In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of a Nano-Tool Appended Oilmix (Clove and Tea Tree Oil) Thermosensitive Gel for Vaginal Candidiasis. J. Funct. Biomater., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb13040203"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"5081","article-title":"Nanostructured lipid system as a strategy to improve the anti-Candida albicans activity of Astronium sp.","volume":"10","author":"Ramos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonif\u00e1cio, B.V., Vila, T.V.M., Masiero, I.F., Da Silva, P.B., Da Silva, I.C., De Oliveira Lopes, \u00c9., Dos Santos Ramos, M.A., De Souza, L.P., Vilegas, W., and Pavan, F.R. (2019). Antifungal Activity of a Hydroethanolic Extract from Astronium urundeuva Leaves Against Candida albicans and Candida glabrata. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02642"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2024.102486","article-title":"Fungus-mediated biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles with synergistic antifungal activity against multidrug-resistant Candida albicans","volume":"59","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Today"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"CD002845","article-title":"Oral versus intra-vaginal imidazole and triazole anti-fungal treatment of uncomplicated vulvovaginal candidiasis (thrush)","volume":"8","author":"Denison","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carolus, H., Pierson, S., Lagrou, K., and Van Dijck, P. (2020). Amphotericin B and other polyenes-discovery, clinical use, mode of action and drug resistance. J. Fungi, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof6040321"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akinosoglou, K., Rigopoulos, E.A., Papageorgiou, D., Schinas, G., Polyzou, E., Dimopoulou, E., Gogos, C., and Dimopoulos, G. (2024). Amphotericin B in the era of new antifungals: Where will it stand?. J. Fungi, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof10040278"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.3.922-926.2001","article-title":"Pharmacodynamics of Amphotericin B in a Neutropenic-Mouse Disseminated-Candidiasis Model","volume":"45","author":"Andes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-013-0069-4","article-title":"Amphotericin B Formulations: A Comparative Review of Efficacy and Toxicity","volume":"73","author":"Hamill","year":"2013","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5392","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00485","article-title":"Formulation strategies to overcome amphotericin B induced toxicity","volume":"21","author":"Dash","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-016-0538-7","article-title":"Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome((R))): A review of the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, clinical experience and future directions","volume":"76","author":"Stone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2005.03.034","article-title":"Treatment of non-albicans Candida vaginitis with amphotericin B vaginal suppositories","volume":"192","author":"Phillips","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1007\/s00403-023-02583-9","article-title":"Lipid-based amphotericin B gel treatment eradicates vulvovaginal candidiasis in patients who failed to azole therapy","volume":"315","author":"Sheikh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2023.3342150","article-title":"Clinical, Safety, and Engineering Perspectives on Wearable Ultrasound Technology: A Review","volume":"71","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, N.D., Leslie, J., Krogstad, E., Morar, N., Mutero, P., Etima, J., Woodrow, K., and van der Straten, A. (2018). Perceptions of the \u201cFabric\u201d\u2014An exploratory study of a novel multi-purpose technology among women in Sub Saharan Africa. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204821"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2021.05.003","article-title":"Electrospun fibers for vaginal administration of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine in the context of topical pre-exposure prophylaxis","volume":"334","author":"Nunes","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"1","article-title":"Novel microparticulate systems for the vaginal delivery of nystatin: Development and characterization","volume":"94","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s12223-018-0652-x","article-title":"Alternative and complementary therapies for vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"64","author":"Felix","year":"2019","journal-title":"Folia Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/0972060X.2025.2594527","article-title":"Essential oils used for vaginal infections: A review","volume":"29","author":"Laher","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2003-43203","article-title":"Chemical composition and antifungal activity of the essential oil of Origanum virens on Candida species","volume":"69","author":"Salgueiro","year":"2003","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1080\/13693780400004810","article-title":"Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form","volume":"43","author":"Tecca","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1080\/13880200802436232","article-title":"Antifungal activity of a gel containing Thymus vulgaris essential oil against Candida species commonly involved in vulvovaginal candidosis","volume":"47","author":"Pinto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobme.2021.100261","article-title":"Essential oils in biomedical applications: Recent progress and future opportunities","volume":"17","author":"Unalan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, A.M., Rocha, B., Moreira, M.M., Delerue-Matos, C., das Neves, J., and Rodrigues, F. (2024). Biological activity and chemical composition of propolis extracts with potential use in vulvovaginal candidiasis management. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25052478"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.4155\/tde-2023-0133","article-title":"From plants to particles: Herbal solutions and nanotechnology combating resistant vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"15","author":"Dalabehera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ther. Deliv."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Croy, B.A., Yamada, A.T., DeMayo, F.J., and Adamson, S.L. (2014). Reproductive tract changes during the mouse estrous cycle. The Guide to Investigation of Mouse Pregnancy, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, B., Pan, L., Zhang, H., Xie, L., Wang, X., Shou, J., Qi, Y., and Yan, X. (2021). Recent developments on using nanomaterials to combat Candida albicans. Front. Chem., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2021.813973"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6528\/ad4bed","article-title":"Advancements in nanoparticle-based therapies for multidrug-resistant candidiasis infections: A comprehensive review","volume":"35","author":"Izadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2008.01160.x","article-title":"Animal models of mucosal Candida infection","volume":"283","author":"Naglik","year":"2008","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"3382","article-title":"Protocols for Vaginal Inoculation and Sample Collection in the Experimental Mouse Model of Candida vaginitis","volume":"8","author":"Yano","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01544-15","article-title":"Experimental models of vaginal candidiasis and their relevance to human candidiasis","volume":"84","author":"Cassone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carmo, A., Rocha, M., Pereirinha, P., Tome, R., and Costa, E. (2023). Antifungals: From pharmacokinetics to clinical practice. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12050884"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2010.09.006","article-title":"Novel approaches to vaginal delivery and safety of microbicides: Biopharmaceuticals, nanoparticles, and vaccines","volume":"88","author":"Whaley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dezzutti, C.S., Brown, E.R., Moncla, B., Russo, J., Cost, M., Wang, L., Uranker, K., Kunjara Na Ayudhya, R.P., Pryke, K., and Pickett, J. (2012). Is wetter better? An evaluation of over-the-counter personal lubricants for safety and anti-HIV-1 activity. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048328"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics6030530","article-title":"Characterization of commercially available vaginal lubricants: A safety perspective","volume":"6","author":"Cunha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lina, T.T., Johnson, S.J., and Wagner, R.D. (2020). Intravaginal poly-(D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid)-(polyethylene glycol) drug-delivery nanoparticles induce pro-inflammatory responses with Candida albicans infection in a mouse model. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240789"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat2444","article-title":"Intravaginal gene silencing using biodegradable polymer nanoparticles densely loaded with small-interfering RNA","volume":"8","author":"Woodrow","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2011.06.036","article-title":"In vivo distribution of surface-modified PLGA nanoparticles following intravaginal delivery","volume":"156","author":"Cu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballou, B., Andreko, S.K., Osuna-Highley, E., McRaven, M., Catalone, T., Bruchez, M.P., Hope, T.J., and Labib, M.E. (2012). Nanoparticle transport from mouse vagina to adjacent lymph nodes. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051995"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138ra79","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3003453","article-title":"Mucus-penetrating nanoparticles for vaginal drug delivery protect against herpes simplex virus","volume":"4","author":"Ensign","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-013-1287-x","article-title":"Biodistribution and pharmacokinetics of dapivirine-loaded nanoparticles after vaginal delivery in mice","volume":"31","author":"Andrade","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10661","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10661","article-title":"Pilot PET study of vaginally administered bioadhesive nanoparticles in cynomolgus monkeys: Kinetics and safety evaluation","volume":"9","author":"Grun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioeng. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.impact.2024.100529","article-title":"Biodistribution and toxic potential of silver nanoparticles when introduced to the female rat reproductive tract","volume":"36","author":"Koonce","year":"2024","journal-title":"NanoImpact"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3003","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-023-01369-w","article-title":"Delivery and short-term maternal and fetal safety of vaginally administered PEG-PLGA nanoparticles","volume":"13","author":"Nelson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9994","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c00128","article-title":"Where Is nano today and where is it headed? A review of nanomedicine and the dilemma of nanotoxicology","volume":"16","author":"Domingues","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/8\/562\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T12:17:02Z","timestamp":1785759422000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/8\/562"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["jof12080562"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof12080562","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]}}}