{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T05:17:32Z","timestamp":1788499052845,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities","award":["PID2024-161570OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-161570OB-I00"]}]},{"award":["PID2024-161570OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-161570OB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05r0vyz12","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PI24CIII\/00045\/PI21CIII\/00012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24CIII\/00045\/PI21CIII\/00012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["COOP24CIII\/00032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COOP24CIII\/00032"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PI24CIII\/00045\/PI21CIII\/00012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24CIII\/00045\/PI21CIII\/00012"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ca2c886","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["COOP24CIII\/00032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COOP24CIII\/00032"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ca2c886","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Fungi","JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antimicrobial resistance and the formation of biofilms in Gram-positive pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus are making the treatment of infections increasingly difficult. This study systematically evaluates the effect of gliotoxin (GT), an antimicrobial metabolite produced by Aspergillus fumigatus, on bacterial growth and biofilm formation, as well as its activity in combination with antibiotics. Three strains of S. pneumoniae and two strains of S. aureus (one methicillin-susceptible and one methicillin-resistant) were analysed. Planktonic growth was examined, and biofilm prevention assays were conducted by assessing biomass via crystal violet staining and viable cell counts. In addition, the combined effect of GT with cefotaxime and vancomycin was evaluated. GT inhibited planktonic growth and significantly reduced the biomass and viability of biofilms in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, its combination with conventional antibiotics (cefotaxime or vancomycin) showed strong synergy, drastically decreasing bacterial survival. These findings highlight the potent antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity of GT and its ability to enhance antibiotic efficacy, providing insight into fungal\u2013bacterial interactions and suggesting potential therapeutic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof12090663","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T15:39:47Z","timestamp":1788363587000},"page":"663","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Aspergillus-Derived Gliotoxin Against Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus: Interaction with Conventional Antibiotics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Mirella","family":"Llamos\u00ed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish Pneumococcal Reference Laboratory, National Center for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9340-6867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julio","family":"Sempere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish Pneumococcal Reference Laboratory, National Center for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2780-5039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alicia","family":"G\u00f3mez-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mycology Reference and Research Laboratory, National Center for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7996-0837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose","family":"Yuste","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish Pneumococcal Reference Laboratory, National Center for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0942-8180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirian","family":"Domenech","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish Pneumococcal Reference Laboratory, National Center for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: A systematic analysis","volume":"399","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2025.101238","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in bacterial meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, or Haemophilus influenzae (2010\u201324): A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Lazarus","year":"2026","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.14796","article-title":"Community-Acquired Pneumonia","volume":"332","author":"Vaughn","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2024.106204","article-title":"Surveillance of invasive pneumococcal disease in Spain exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (2019\u20132023)","volume":"89","author":"Sempere","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30297-X","article-title":"Pneumococcal lineages associated with serotype replacement and antibiotic resistance in childhood invasive pneumococcal disease in the post-PCV13 era: An international whole-genome sequencing study","volume":"19","author":"Lo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0153025","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.01530-25","article-title":"Emergence of antibiotic-resistant pneumococcal serotypes causing invasive pneumococcal disease in children, Spain","volume":"70","author":"Llorente","year":"2026","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Llamos\u00ed, M., P\u00e9rez-Garc\u00eda, C., \u00dabeda, A., Vidal-Alc\u00e1ntara, E.J., Pareja-Cerb\u00e1n, I., G\u00f3mez-Rubio, E., Coronel, P., Sanz, J.C., Domenech, M., and Sempere, J. (2025). Antimicrobial activity of \u03b2-lactam antibiotics against pneumococcal isolates causing pneumococcal disease in adults immediately before and after the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain (2019\u20132020). Front. Pharmacol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1658431"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e744","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(22)00127-6","article-title":"Effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines and SARS-CoV-2 on antimicrobial resistance and the emergence of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes with reduced susceptibility in Spain, 2004\u201320: A national surveillance study","volume":"3","author":"Sempere","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e450","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(21)00064-1","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in paediatric Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates amid global implementation of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis","volume":"2","author":"Andrejko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e606","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(24)00040-5","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus colonisation and strategies for decolonisation","volume":"5","author":"Piewngam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0147-4","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: An overview of basic and clinical research","volume":"17","author":"Turner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2025.4288","article-title":"Management of Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia","volume":"334","author":"Tong","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01867-1","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis with forecasts to 2050","volume":"404","author":"Naghavi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00491-13","article-title":"Biofilm Formation Avoids Complement Immunity and Phagocytosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"81","author":"Domenech","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2012.02853.x","article-title":"Insight into the composition of the intercellular matrix of Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilms","volume":"15","author":"Domenech","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-025-00782-y","article-title":"Immune dysfunction during S. aureus biofilm-associated implant infections: Opportunities for novel therapeutic strategies","volume":"11","author":"Brandquist","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7915.2011.00294.x","article-title":"Biofilm formation in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"5","author":"Domenech","year":"2012","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-024-00046-3","article-title":"Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in biofilms","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0261522","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02615-22","article-title":"Quorum Sensing and Antimicrobial Production Orchestrate Biofilm Dynamics in Multispecies Bacterial Communities","volume":"10","author":"Armes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.13634","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus biofilm: A complex developmental organism","volume":"104","author":"Moormeier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chao, Y., Marks, L.R., Pettigrew, M.M., and Hakansson, A.P. (2014). Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilm formation and dispersion during colonization and disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2014.00194"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2813","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00035-14","article-title":"Airway Microbiome Dynamics in Exacerbations of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"52","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1183\/09059180.00011614","article-title":"Host\u2013microbe interactions in distal airways: Relevance to chronic airway diseases","volume":"24","author":"Martin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioflm.2024.100238","article-title":"Molecular characterization of gliotoxin synthesis in a biofilm model of Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"8","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biofilm"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-44329-1","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus mitogen-activated protein kinase MpkA is involved in gliotoxin production and self-protection","volume":"15","author":"Valero","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozaliyani, A., Antariksa, B., Nurwidya, F., Zaini, J., Setianingrum, F., Hasan, F., Nugrahapraja, H., Yusva, H., Wibowo, H., and Bowolaksono, A. (2023). The Fungal and Bacterial Interface in the Respiratory Mycobiome with a Focus on Aspergillus spp.. Life, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/life13041017"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6668","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10609-x","article-title":"Clearance of mixed biofilms of Streptococcus pneumoniae and methicillin-susceptible\/resistant Staphylococcus aureus by antioxidants N-acetyl-l-cysteine and cysteamine","volume":"12","author":"Sempere","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"myac025","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myac025","article-title":"Dynamics of gliotoxin and bis(methylthio)gliotoxin production during the course of Aspergillus fumigatus infection","volume":"60","author":"Rueda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2023.06.009","article-title":"Exploring the antibacterial action of gliotoxin: Does it induce oxidative stress or protein damage?","volume":"214","author":"Vasilchenko","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16156","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-43300-w","article-title":"Gliotoxin-mediated bacterial growth inhibition is caused by specific metal ion depletion","volume":"13","author":"Downes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, W., Liu, T., Zhang, W., and Zhang, W. (2021). The Toxic Mechanism of Gliotoxins and Biosynthetic Strategies for Toxicity Prevention. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413510"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.14445","article-title":"Where in the world do bacteria experience oxidative stress?","volume":"21","author":"Imlay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, A., Ono, K., Toyomoto, T., Hanaoka, K., and Sawa, T. (2025). Identification of Fungal Metabolite Gliotoxin as a Potent Inhibitor Against Bacterial O-Acetylserine Sulfhydrylase CysK and CysM. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26031106"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1042\/EBC20220222","article-title":"Gliotoxin and related metabolites as zinc chelators: Implications and exploitation to overcome antimicrobial resistance","volume":"67","author":"Downes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Essays Biochem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Liu, Y., Wang, Q., and Song, H. (2025). Progress in Gliotoxin Research. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30183665"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-micro-011320-015542","article-title":"Bacterial Volatile Compounds: Functions in Communication, Cooperation, and Competition","volume":"74","author":"Netzker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3161","article-title":"Adhesion, invasion and evasion: The many functions of the surface proteins of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"12","author":"Foster","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Touaitia, R., Mairi, A., Ibrahim, N.A., Basher, N.S., Idres, T., and Touati, A. (2025). Staphylococcus aureus: A Review of the Pathogenesis and Virulence Mechanisms. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14050470"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguinagalde, L., Corsini, B., Domenech, A., Domenech, M., C\u00e1mara, J., Ardanuy, C., Garc\u00eda, E., Li\u00f1ares, J., Fenoll, A., and Yuste, J. (2015). Emergence of Amoxicillin-Resistant Variants of Spain9V-ST156 Pneumococci Expressing Serotype 11A Correlates with Their Ability to Evade the Host Immune Response. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0137565"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521845","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2025.2521845","article-title":"The rise of serotype 8 is associated with lineages and mutations in the capsular operon with different potential to produce invasive pneumococcal disease","volume":"14","author":"Domenech","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2025.101267","article-title":"The effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine on nasopharyngeal colonisation following human infection challenge with serotype 3 and serotype 6B (PREVENTING PNEUMO 2): A double-masked, randomised, controlled, phase 4 trial","volume":"7","author":"Liatsikos","year":"2026","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00881-09","article-title":"The Streptococcus pneumoniae Capsule Inhibits Complement Activity and Neutrophil Phagocytosis by Multiple Mechanisms","volume":"78","author":"Hyams","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00024-15","article-title":"Pneumococcal Capsules and Their Types: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"28","author":"Geno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0001-8","article-title":"Streptococcus pneumoniae: Transmission, colonization and invasion","volume":"16","author":"Weiser","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"313","article-title":"Chemistry and biological effects of gliotoxin","volume":"55","author":"Kosalec","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arh. Hig. Rada Toksikol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4519","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00724-13","article-title":"Surface Charge of Streptococcus pneumoniae Predicts Serotype Distribution","volume":"81","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinberger, D.M., Trzci\u0144ski, K., Lu, Y.-J., Bogaert, D., Brandes, A., Galagan, J., Anderson, P.W., Malley, R., and Lipsitch, M. (2009). Pneumococcal Capsular Polysaccharide Structure Predicts Serotype Prevalence. PLoS Pathog., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000476"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waz, N.T., Oliveira, S., Girardello, R., Lincopan, N., Barazzone, G., Parisotto, T., Hakansson, A.P., Converso, T.R., and Darrieux, M. (2022). Influence of the Polysaccharide Capsule on the Bactericidal Activity of Indolicidin on Streptococcus pneumoniae. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.898815"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luck, J.N., Tettelin, H., and Orihuela, C.J. (2020). Sugar-Coated Killer: Serotype 3 Pneumococcal Disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.613287"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4653","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.73.8.4653-4667.2005","article-title":"Illustration of Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Capsule during Adherence and Invasion of Epithelial Cells","volume":"73","author":"Hammerschmidt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esteban, P., Redrado, S., Comas, L., Domingo, M.P., Mill\u00e1n-Lou, M.I., Seral, C., Algarate, S., Lopez, C., Rezusta, A., and Pardo, J. (2021). In Vitro and In Vivo Antibacterial Activity of Gliotoxin Alone and in Combination with Antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13020085"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grooters, K.E., Ku, J.C., Richter, D.M., Krinock, M.J., Minor, A., Li, P., Kim, A., Sawyer, R., and Li, Y. (2024). Strategies for combating antibiotic resistance in bacterial biofilms. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1352273"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Briard, B., Mislin, G.L.A., Latg\u00e9, J.-P., and Beauvais, A. (2019). Interactions between Aspergillus fumigatus and Pulmonary Bacteria: Current State of the Field, New Data, and Future Perspective. J. Fungi, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof5020048"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14473","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71367-2","article-title":"In vitro study on aspects of molecular mechanisms underlying invasive aspergillosis caused by gliotoxin and fumagillin, alone and in combination","volume":"10","author":"Gayathri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13857","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus-derived gliotoxin impacts innate immune cell activation through modulating lipid mediator production in macrophages","volume":"173","author":"Nischang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunology"}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/9\/663\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T04:32:26Z","timestamp":1788496346000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/12\/9\/663"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jof12090663"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof12090663","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]}}}