{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,11]],"date-time":"2026-11-11T23:46:49Z","timestamp":1794440809890,"version":"4.9.1"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]],"date-time":"2015-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1451520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dermatophytes are keratinophilic fungi responsible for benign and common forms of infection worldwide. However, they can lead to rare and severe diseases in immunocompromised patients. Severe forms include extensive and\/or invasive dermatophytosis, i.e., deep dermatophytosis and Majocchi\u2019s granuloma. They are reported in immunocompromised hosts with primary (autosomal recessive CARD9 deficiency) or acquired (solid organ transplantation, autoimmune diseases requiring immunosuppressive treatments, HIV infection) immunodeficiencies. The clinical manifestations of the infection are not specific. Lymph node and organ involvement may also occur. Diagnosis requires both mycological and histological findings. There is no consensus on treatment. Systemic antifungal agents such as terbinafine and azoles (itraconazole or posaconazole) are effective. However, long-term outcome and treatment management depend on the site and extent of the infection and the nature of the underlying immunodeficiency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof2010004","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,5]],"date-time":"2016-01-05T02:29:07Z","timestamp":1451960947000},"page":"4","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":105,"title":["Severe Dermatophytosis and Acquired or Innate Immunodeficiency: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Claire","family":"Rouzaud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Infectiologie Necker-Pasteur, H\u00f4pital Necker Enfants Malades et Institut Imagine, APHP, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roderick","family":"Hay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dermatology Department, King\u2019s College Hospital NHS Trust, London SE5 9RS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivier","family":"Chosidow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service de Dermatologie, H\u00f4pital Henri Mondor, APHP, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Est Cr\u00e9teil, 94010 Cr\u00e9teil, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Dupin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service de Dermatologie, H\u00f4pital Cochin, APHP, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, 75014 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Puel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de G\u00e9n\u00e9tique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses, INSERM U1163, H\u00f4pital Necker Enfants Malades et Institut Imagine, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivier","family":"Lortholary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Infectiologie Necker-Pasteur, H\u00f4pital Necker Enfants Malades et Institut Imagine, APHP, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, 75015 Paris, France"},{"name":"Institut Pasteur, Centre National de R\u00e9f\u00e9rence Mycoses Invasives, 75015 Paris, France"},{"name":"Institut Pasteur, Unit\u00e9 de Mycologie Mol\u00e9culaire, CNRS URA3012, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fanny","family":"Lanternier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Infectiologie Necker-Pasteur, H\u00f4pital Necker Enfants Malades et Institut Imagine, APHP, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, 75015 Paris, France"},{"name":"Institut Pasteur, Centre National de R\u00e9f\u00e9rence Mycoses Invasives, 75015 Paris, France"},{"name":"Institut Pasteur, Unit\u00e9 de Mycologie Mol\u00e9culaire, CNRS URA3012, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clindermatol.2009.12.005","article-title":"Epidemiology of superficial fungal infections","volume":"28","author":"Ameen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0507.2008.01606.x","article-title":"Epidemiological trends in skin mycoses worldwide","volume":"51","author":"Havlickova","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2013.446","article-title":"The global burden of skin disease in 2010: An analysis of the prevalence and impact of skin conditions","volume":"134","author":"Hay","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Invest. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-008-9100-9","article-title":"Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections","volume":"166","author":"Seebacher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Bennett, J.E., Dolin, R., and Blaser, M.J. (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett\u2019s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, Elsevier Saunders. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1111\/1523-1747.ep12461067","article-title":"Adherence of dermatophyte microconidia and arthroconidia to human keratinocytes in vitro","volume":"89","author":"Zurita","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Invest. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0507.2011.02081.x","article-title":"Mechanisms of skin adherence and invasion by dermatophytes","volume":"55","author":"Baldo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2012.07.014","article-title":"Dermatophyte-host relationship of a murine model of experimental invasive dermatophytosis","volume":"14","author":"Venturini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2005.06838.x","article-title":"Could proximal white subungual onychomycosis be a complication of systemic spread? The lessons to be learned from Maladie Dermatophytique and other deep infections","volume":"153","author":"Baran","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1097\/00001432-200404000-00002","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis: Rare infections or common, but unrecognised, complications of lymphatic spread?","volume":"17","author":"Hay","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1208487","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis and inherited CARD9 deficiency","volume":"369","author":"Lanternier","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.8.3.317","article-title":"Cutaneous defenses against dermatophytes and yeasts","volume":"8","author":"Wagner","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdermsci.2012.02.008","article-title":"Analysis of Trichophyton antigen-induced contact hypersensitivity in mouse","volume":"66","author":"Nakamura","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38854","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M606542200","article-title":"Dectin-2 is a pattern recognition receptor for fungi that couples with the Fc receptor \u03b3 chain to induce innate immune responses","volume":"281","author":"Sato","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"465","article-title":"Cell-mediated immunity in experimental murine dermatophytosis. II. Adoptive transfer of immunity to dermatophyte infection by lymphoid cells from donors with acute or chronic infections","volume":"53","author":"Calderon","year":"1984","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2005.07.028","article-title":"Stimulation, inhibition and death of macrophages infected with Trichophyton rubrum","volume":"8","author":"Campos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.3109\/13693780903213512","article-title":"Disseminated dermatophytosis in a patient with hereditary hemochromatosis and hepatic cirrhosis: Case report and review of the literature","volume":"48","author":"Marconi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12317","article-title":"Case of dermatophyte abscess caused by Trichophyton rubrum: A case report and review of the literature","volume":"58","author":"Inaoki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1086\/516887","article-title":"Invasive disease due to Epidermophyton floccosum in an immunocompromised patient with Beh\u00e7et\u2019s syndrome","volume":"25","author":"Seddon","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"220","article-title":"A new trichophytic granuloma: Clinical and mycological studies","volume":"9","author":"Majocchi","year":"1883","journal-title":"Bull. R. Acad. Med. Roma"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/S0255-0857(21)02126-5","article-title":"Disseminated nodular granulomatous perifolliculitis","volume":"25","author":"Das","year":"2007","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"457","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis: Report of 2 cases and review of the literature","volume":"67","author":"Chastain","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cutis"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"106","article-title":"Cerebral injury in dermatophytic disease","volume":"2","author":"Allal","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Mycol. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annder.2010.01.006","article-title":"A fatal case of dermatomycoses with retropharyngeal abscess","volume":"137","author":"Cheikhrouhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5298","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.11.5298-5301.2003","article-title":"Deep Infection by Trichophyton rubrum in an Immunocompromised Patient","volume":"41","author":"Elinav","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0507.2009.01736.x","article-title":"Widespread erosive tinea corporis by Arthroderma benhamiae in a renal transplant recipient: Case report","volume":"53","author":"Budihardja","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2230.2003.01281.x","article-title":"\u2018\u2018Tinea pseudoimbricata\u2019\u2019: Tinea corporis in a renal transplant recipient mimicking the concentric rings of tinea imbricata","volume":"28","author":"Lim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2011.08.001","article-title":"Epidermophytie rapidement extensive \u00e0 Trichopyton mentagrophytes chez un sujet immunocomp\u00e9tent","volume":"21","author":"Arnaud","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2012.04.005","article-title":"Trichophyton Schoenleinii-induced widespread tinea corporis mimicking parapsoriasis","volume":"22","author":"Mansouri","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mycol. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2011.12.001","article-title":"Severe tinea corporis due to Trichophyton verrucosum mimicking discoid lupus erythematosus","volume":"22","author":"Khosravi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mycol. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0560.1991.tb00598.x","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma","volume":"18","author":"Smith","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Cutan. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/0190-9622(95)90270-8","article-title":"Invasive Trichophyton rubrum infection in the immunocompromised host: Report of three cases","volume":"33","author":"Grossman","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0560.2009.01355.x","article-title":"Disseminated dermal Trichophyton rubrum infection\u2014An expression of dermatophyte dimorphism?","volume":"37","author":"Lillis","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Cutan. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2013.2129a","article-title":"Nodules on the legs in a renal transplant recipient","volume":"149","author":"Azib","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1159\/000018141","article-title":"Dermatophytic granuloma caused by Microsporum canis in a heart-lung recipient","volume":"198","author":"Voisard","year":"1999","journal-title":"Dermatolgy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(87)90078-7","article-title":"Invasive Trichophyton rubrum infection in an immunocompromised host: Case report and review of the literature","volume":"82","author":"Novick","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"437","article-title":"Papulo-nodular lesions in a heart transplant patient: Invasive infection by Trichophyton rubrum","volume":"98","author":"Serna","year":"1992","journal-title":"Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.34.2.460-462.1996","article-title":"Primary invasive cutaneous Microsporum canis infections in immunocompromised patients","volume":"34","author":"King","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(98)70396-2","article-title":"Invasive Trichophyton rubrum resembling blastomycosis infection in the immunocompromised host","volume":"39","author":"Squeo","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-4362.2001.01096.x","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis in a post transplant recipient","volume":"40","author":"Franco","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1194","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma caused by Trichophyton tonsurans in a cardiac transplant recipient","volume":"140","author":"Liao","year":"1999","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E38","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2001.29294","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s Granuloma and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease in a renal transplant recipient","volume":"38","author":"Tse","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"767","article-title":"Trichophyton tonsurans associated tinea corporis infection with the development of Mojocchi\u2019s granuloma in a renal transplant patient","volume":"4","author":"Rajpara","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Drugs Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2004.05.008","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum with concomitant disseminated nocardiosis in a renal transplant recipient","volume":"51","author":"Arikan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0560.2006.00628.x","article-title":"Pseudomycetoma caused by Microsporum canis in an immunosuppressed patient: A case report and review of the literature","volume":"34","author":"Berg","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cutan. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1610-0387.2007.06283.x","article-title":"Trichophytic Majocchi granuloma mimicking Kaposi sarcoma","volume":"5","author":"Brod","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"518","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma after kidney transplantation","volume":"4","author":"Burg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3062.2009.00454.x","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma after antithymocyte globulin therapy in a liver transplant patient","volume":"12","author":"Gega","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1080\/13693780802562951","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma in a liver transplant recipient caused by a Trichophyton spp., phenotypically consistent with Trichophyton rubrum var. raubitschekii","volume":"47","author":"Ma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3062.2010.00596.x","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma in solid organ transplant recipients","volume":"13","author":"Romero","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12001","article-title":"Deep Trichophyton rubrum infection presenting with umbilicated papulonodules in a cardiac transplant recipient","volume":"56","author":"Demiriz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"927","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma mimicking Kaposi sarcoma in a heart transplant patient","volume":"38","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.3315\/jdcr.2012.1105","article-title":"Trichophyton rubrum-induced Majocchi\u2019s Granuloma in a heart transplant recipient. A therapeutic challenge","volume":"6","author":"Steiner","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2230.1992.tb00258.x","article-title":"Widespread dermatophytosis due to Microsporum (Trichophyton) gallinae in a patient with AIDS a case report from Spain","volume":"17","author":"Gimeno","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"762","article-title":"Trichophyton tonsurans dermatophyte granuloma in an HIV-1 infected patient","volume":"140","author":"Hadacek","year":"1999","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1346-8138.2004.tb00612.x","article-title":"Widespread and invasive Trichophyton rubrum infection mimicking Kaposi\u2019s sarcoma in a patient with AIDS","volume":"31","author":"Kwon","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00436391","article-title":"Extensive dermatophytoses caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum canis in a patient with AIDS","volume":"120","author":"Saballs","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1468-3083.2000.00015.x","article-title":"Extensive and deep dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. Interdigitalis in an HIV-1 positive patient","volume":"14","author":"Camacho","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006806304125","article-title":"Disseminated dermatophytosis caused by Microsporum gypseum in two patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome","volume":"137","author":"Porro","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(96)90298-4","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum in a patient with AIDS","volume":"34","author":"Tsang","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"58","article-title":"Recalcitrant trichophytic granuloma associated with NK cell deficiency in a SLE patient treated with corticosteroid","volume":"11","author":"Akiba","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.1985.01660070085021","article-title":"Granuloma and pseudogranuloma of the skin due to Microsporum canis. Successful management with local injections of miconazole","volume":"121","author":"Barson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"237","article-title":"Deep dermatophyte infection with chronic draining nodules in an immunocompromised patient","volume":"55","author":"Demidovich","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cutis"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016328001146","article-title":"Deep dermatophytoses in association with atopy and diabetes mellitus: Majocchi\u2019s granuloma tricophyticum or dermatophytic pseudomycetoma?","volume":"154","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4632.2012.05550.x","article-title":"Disseminated dermatophytic pseudomycetoma caused by Microsporum species","volume":"51","author":"Ball","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.2310\/7750.2007.00009","article-title":"Invasive Trichophyton rubrum infection occurring with infliximab and long-term prednisone treatment","volume":"11","author":"Lowther","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cutan. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.2340\/00015555-1452","article-title":"Deep pseudocystic dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum in a patient with myasthenia gravis","volume":"93","author":"Matsuzaki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2005.03.058","article-title":"Tinea profunda cysticum caused by Trichophyton rubrum","volume":"54","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2006.07371.x","article-title":"Disseminated dermatophytic pseudomycetomas arising in an immunocompromised patient","volume":"155","author":"Petrov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"244","article-title":"Trichophyton rubrum abscesses in immunocompromised patients. A case report","volume":"69","author":"Faergemann","year":"1989","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1984.00350150227044","article-title":"Successful use of ketoconazole for invasive cutaneous Trichophyton rubrum infection","volume":"144","author":"Baker","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2133.2001.04331.x","article-title":"Trichophyton rubrum showing deep dermal invasion directly from the epidermis in immunosuppressed patients","volume":"145","author":"Smith","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(09)80146-1","article-title":"Dermatophytes as opportunistic pathogens","volume":"30","author":"Elewski","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4362.1988.tb01269.x","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis to Trichophyton rubrum and T. verrucosum in an immunosuppressed patient","volume":"27","author":"Lestringant","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-013-9696-2","article-title":"Extensive deep dermatophytosis cause by Trichophyton rubrum in a patient with liver cirrhosis and chronic renal failure","volume":"176","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-4362.2000.00894.x","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma trichophyticum in an immunocompromised patient","volume":"39","author":"Gupta","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.1979.tb05605.x","article-title":"Trichophyton violaceum abscesses","volume":"101","author":"Swart","year":"1979","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1590\/S0365-05962010000600017","article-title":"Dermatophytosis caused by Tricophyton rubrum as an opportunistic infection in patients with Cushing disease","volume":"85","author":"Peixoto","year":"2010","journal-title":"An. Bras. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"729","article-title":"Microsporum canis mycetoma of the scalp","volume":"127","author":"Vezon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.140.5.624","article-title":"Severe generalized deep dermatophytosis due to Trichophyton rubrum","volume":"140","author":"Tateishi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"192","article-title":"Extensive skin and nail dermatophytosis due to autosomal recessive CARD9 deficiency in an Egyptian patient cured with posaconazole","volume":"151","author":"Jachiet","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"17","article-title":"Dermatophytic disease in Algeria: A new case and review of the literature","volume":"118","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"170","article-title":"Antifungal agents in dermato-phytic disease: Failure of griseofulvin, ketoconazole and itraconazole","volume":"83","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"725","article-title":"Trichophyton rubrum dermatophytic disease: A new case","volume":"116","year":"1989","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dermatophytic disease: Role of type TC2 CD8 lymphocytes","volume":"122","author":"Pruszkowski","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"705","article-title":"Dermatophytic disease: Exuberant hyperkeratosis with cutaneous horns","volume":"125","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-015-0170-4","article-title":"A homozygous CARD9 mutation in a Brazilian patient with deep dermatophytosis","volume":"35","author":"Grumach","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0000000000000031","article-title":"Primary immunodeficiencies underlying fungal infections","volume":"25","author":"Lanternier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"139","article-title":"Aspects de la maladie dermatophytique","volume":"63","author":"Hadida","year":"1959","journal-title":"Algerie Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1100102","article-title":"STAT1 mutations in autosomal dominant chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis","volume":"365","author":"Plantinga","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20110958","article-title":"Gain-of-function human STAT1 mutations impair IL-17 immunity and underlie chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis","volume":"208","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.148.10.1199-c","article-title":"Diffuse hyperkeratosis in a deaf and blind 48-year-old woman\u2014Quiz case. Diagnosis: Keratitis-ichthyosis-deafness (KID) syndrome with secondary dermatophytosis","volume":"149","author":"Machan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2012.47.3330","article-title":"Recurrent dermatophytosis (Majocchi granuloma) associated eith chemotherapy-induced neutropenia","volume":"32","author":"Lourdes","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/00015550310016571","article-title":"Deep Dermatophytosis during topical tacrolimus therapy for psoriasis","volume":"83","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2003","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00493584","article-title":"Deep generalized trichophytosis. (Endothrix in tissues of different origin)","volume":"56","author":"Araviysky","year":"1975","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0507.2006.01324.x","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum: Report of two cases","volume":"50","author":"Gong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2230.2005.01839.x","article-title":"Invasive dermatophytosis with lymph node involvement in an immunocompetent patient","volume":"30","author":"Tejasvi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4362.1982.tb03141.x","article-title":"Subcutaneous abscess due to Trichophyton mentagrophytes","volume":"21","author":"Smith","year":"1982","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006984116046","article-title":"Deep dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum\u2014A case report","volume":"142","author":"Sentamilselvi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"452","article-title":"Invasive Trichophyton rubrum infection resembling blastomycosis in a patient with altered immune status during the course of chronic superficial Trichophyton rubrum infection","volume":"17","author":"Akman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"976","article-title":"Superficial and deep granulomatous lesions caused by Trichophyton violaceum","volume":"17","author":"Ravaghi","year":"1976","journal-title":"Cutis"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2230.1987.tb02518.x","article-title":"Deep (subcutaneous) dermatophyte infection presenting with unilateral lymphoedema","volume":"12","author":"Mayou","year":"1987","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1346-8138.2007.00363.x","article-title":"Majocchi\u2019s granuloma of the face in an immunocompetent patient","volume":"34","author":"Gill","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1159\/000325759","article-title":"Pseudomycetoma for Microsporum canis: Report of a case diagnosed by fine needle aspiration biopsy","volume":"51","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Cytol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(77)90554-X","article-title":"Generalized Microsporum audoninii infection and depressed cellular immunity associated with a missing plasma factor required for lymphocyte blastogenesis","volume":"63","author":"Allen","year":"1977","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.1983.01650300036013","article-title":"Trichophyton mentagrophytes granulomas","volume":"119","author":"Hironaga","year":"1983","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0007-0963.2001.04512.x","article-title":"Subcutaneous infection by Microsporum gypseum","volume":"146","author":"Mayayo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2133.2001.04301.x","article-title":"Dermatophyte pseudomycetoma of the scalp: Case report and review","volume":"145","author":"Botterel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00443908","article-title":"Mycetoma or pseudomycetoma? A distinctive mycosis caused by dermatophytes","volume":"81","author":"Rinaldi","year":"1983","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-014-9834-5","article-title":"Chronically recurrent and widespread tinea corporis due to Trichophyton rubrum in an immunocompetent patient","volume":"179","author":"Kong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1080\/13693780410001731583","article-title":"In vitro activities of posaconazole, ravuconazole, terbinafine, itraconazole and fluconazole against dermatophyte, yeast and non-dermatophyte species","volume":"43","author":"Gupta","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2579","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00818-06","article-title":"Voriconazole susceptibilities of dermatophyte isolates obtained from a worldwide tinea capitis clinical trial","volume":"44","author":"Ghannoum","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12315","article-title":"In vitro susceptibility patterns of clinically important Trichophyton and Epidermophyton species against nine antifungal drugs","volume":"58","author":"Badali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4362.1995.tb00619.x","article-title":"Terbinafine in the treatment of Majocchi\u2019s granuloma","volume":"34","author":"Gupta","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01616-09","article-title":"Skin concentrations and pharmacokinetics of posaconazole after oral administration","volume":"54","author":"Krishna","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0507.2008.01505.x","article-title":"Widespread, chronic, and fluconazole-resistant Trichophyton rubrum infection in an immunocompetent patient","volume":"51","author":"Balci","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.1993.tb03342.x","article-title":"Dermatophyte pseudomycetoma: A case report","volume":"129","author":"Chen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1346-8138.1987.tb03002.x","article-title":"Surgical treatment of a deep fungal infection of the skin by Trichosporon cutaneum","volume":"14","author":"Seki","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Dermatol."}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/2\/1\/4\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:55:08Z","timestamp":1760216108000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/2\/1\/4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jof2010004"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof2010004","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]}}}