{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T15:30:11Z","timestamp":1792855811781,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,6]],"date-time":"2019-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1562371200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Candida auris is an emerging multidrug-resistant yeast first described in 2009 that has since caused healthcare-associated outbreaks of severe human infections around the world. In some hospitals, it has become a leading cause of invasive candidiasis. C. auris is markedly different from most other pathogenic Candida species in its genetics, antifungal resistance, and ability to spread between patients. The reasons why this fungus began spreading widely in the last decade remain a mystery. We examine available data on C. auris and related species, including genomic epidemiology, phenotypic characteristics, and sites of detection, to put forth hypotheses on its possible origins. C. auris has not been detected in the natural environment; related species have been detected in in plants, insects, and aquatic environments, as well as from human body sites. It can tolerate hypersaline environments and higher temperatures than most Candida species. We explore hypotheses about the pre-emergence niche of C. auris, whether in the environmental or human microbiome, and speculate on factors that might have led to its spread, including the possible roles of healthcare, antifungal use, and environmental changes, including human activities that might have expanded its presence in the environment or caused increased human contact.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof5030058","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,8]],"date-time":"2019-07-08T03:01:31Z","timestamp":1562554891000},"page":"58","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":146,"title":["On the Origins of a Species: What Might Explain the Rise of Candida auris?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Brendan R.","family":"Jackson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nancy","family":"Chow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaitlin","family":"Forsberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"},{"name":"IHRC, Inc., Atlanta, GA 30346, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia P.","family":"Litvintseva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shawn R.","family":"Lockhart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rory","family":"Welsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Snigdha","family":"Vallabhaneni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Prevention and Response Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"Chiller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Mycotic Diseases Branch, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2008.00083.x","article-title":"Candida auris sp. nov., a novel ascomycetous yeast isolated from the external ear canal of an inpatient in a Japanese hospital","volume":"53","author":"Satoh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2019, June 06). Clinical Alert to U.S. Healthcare Facilities\u2014June 2016|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/fungal\/candida-auris\/candida-auris-alert.html."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2019, June 06). Candida auris Identified in England, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/candida-auris-emergence-in-england\/candida-auris-identified-in-england."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2019, June 06). 3 October 2016: Candida auris Outbreaks in Health Care Services\u2014Epidemiological Alert|PAHO WHO. Available online: https:\/\/www.paho.org\/hq\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12565%3A3-october-2016-candida-auris-outbreaks-in-health-care-services-epidemiological-alert&catid=2103%3Arecent-epidemiological-alerts-updates&Itemid=42346&lang=en."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12596","article-title":"TRAC-South Africa group. Detection of neonatal unit clusters of Candida parapsilosis fungaemia by microsatellite genotyping: Results from laboratory-based sentinel surveillance, South Africa, 2009\u20132010","volume":"60","author":"Magobo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"15","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of Candida auris in Colombia reveals a highly-related, country-wide colonization with regional patterns in Amphotericin B resistance","volume":"68","author":"Chow","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2996","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00921-17","article-title":"Survival, Persistence, and Isolation of the Emerging Multidrug-Resistant Pathogenic Yeast Candida auris on a Plastic Health Care Surface","volume":"55","author":"Welsh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2017.162","article-title":"Effectiveness of Disinfectants Against Candida auris and Other Candida Species","volume":"38","author":"Cadnum","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2019, June 06). Tracking Candida auris|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/fungal\/candida-auris\/tracking-c-auris.html."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myy054","article-title":"Candida auris: The recent emergence of a multidrug-resistant fungal pathogen","volume":"57","author":"Forsberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3139","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00319-11","article-title":"First three reported cases of nosocomial fungemia caused by Candida auris","volume":"49","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.7883\/yoken.JJID.2017.466","article-title":"The Second Candida auris Isolate from Aural Discharge in Japan","volume":"71","author":"Iguchi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Pem\u00e1n, J., and Ruiz-Gait\u00e1n, A. (2018). How should we manage the C. auris outbreak?. Eur. Congr. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., S0067, Available online: https:\/\/www.escmid.org\/escmid_publications\/escmid_elibrary\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw691","article-title":"Simultaneous Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris on 3 Continents Confirmed by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Epidemiological Analyses","volume":"64","author":"Lockhart","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6619a7","article-title":"Notes from the Field: Ongoing Transmission of Candida auris in Health Care Facilities\u2014United States, June 2016\u2013May 2017","volume":"66","author":"Tsay","year":"2017","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30597-8","article-title":"Multiple introductions and subsequent transmission of multidrug-resistant Candida auris in the USA: A molecular epidemiological survey","volume":"18","author":"Chow","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Chow, N., de Groot, T., Badali, H., Abastabar, M., Chiller, T.M., and Meis, J.F. (2019). A Fifth Clade: New Insights into the Population Structure of Candida auris, Iran, 2018. Emerg. Infect. Dis., in press."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12886","article-title":"Candida auris otomycosis in Iran and review of recent literature","volume":"62","author":"Abastabar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fov110","DOI":"10.1093\/femsyr\/fov110","article-title":"The birth of a deadly yeast: Tracing the evolutionary emergence of virulence traits in Candida glabrata","volume":"16","year":"2016","journal-title":"FEMS Yeast Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5346","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-07779-6","article-title":"Genomic insights into multidrug-resistance, mating and virulence in Candida auris and related emerging species","volume":"9","author":"Gade","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-014-0170-z","article-title":"On the reclassification of species assigned to Candida and other anamorphic ascomycetous yeast genera based on phylogenetic circumscription","volume":"106","author":"Daniel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7715","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02204-15","article-title":"Acquired Multidrug Antifungal Resistance in Candida lusitaniae during Therapy","volume":"59","author":"Asner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3435","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01283-12","article-title":"Species identification and antifungal susceptibility testing of Candida bloodstream isolates from population-based surveillance studies in two U.S. cities from 2008 to 2011","volume":"50","author":"Lockhart","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatterjee, S., Alampalli, S.V., Nageshan, R.K., Chettiar, S.T., Joshi, S., and Tatu, U.S. (2015). Draft genome of a commonly misdiagnosed multidrug resistant pathogen Candida auris. BMC Genom., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-015-1863-z"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12171","article-title":"Topographic diversity of fungal and bacterial communities in human skin","volume":"498","author":"Findley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S594","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofy210.1695","article-title":"2039. New York State 2016\u20132018: Progression from Candida auris Colonization to Bloodstream Infection","volume":"5","author":"Southwick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12781","article-title":"An outbreak due to Candida auris with prolonged colonization and candidemia in a tertiary care European hospital","volume":"61","author":"Moret","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-016-0132-5","article-title":"First hospital outbreak of the globally emerging Candida auris in a European hospital","volume":"5","author":"Schelenz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1910.130393","article-title":"New clonal strain of Candida auris, Delhi, India","volume":"19","author":"Chowdhary","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2106.150270","article-title":"Candida auris Candidemia in Kuwait, 2014","volume":"21","author":"Emara","year":"2015","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1086\/644642","article-title":"Vertebrate Endothermy Restricts Most Fungi as Potential Pathogens","volume":"200","author":"Robert","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2018.07.013","article-title":"Potential transmission pathways of clinically relevant fungi in indoor swimming pool facilities","volume":"221","author":"Ekowati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Limtong, S., and Nasanit, R. (2017). Phylloplane Yeasts in Tropical Climates. Yeasts in Natural Ecosystems: Diversity, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-62683-3_7"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0373-4","article-title":"The gut mycobiome of the Human Microbiome Project healthy cohort","volume":"5","author":"Nash","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalan, L., Loesche, M., Hodkinson, B.P., Heilmann, K., Ruthel, G., Gardner, S.E., and Grice, E.A. (2016). Redefining the Chronic-Wound Microbiome: Fungal Communities Are Prevalent, Dynamic, and Associated with Delayed Healing. mBio, 7.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01058-16"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2425","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-012-0335-x","article-title":"Global species numbers of fungi: Are tropical studies and molecular approaches contributing to a more robust estimate?","volume":"21","author":"Hawksworth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3641","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02248-12","article-title":"Reclassification of the Candida haemulonii Complex as Candida haemulonii (C. haemulonii Group I), C. duobushaemulonii sp. nov. (C. haemulonii Group II), and C. haemulonii var. vulnera var. nov.: Three Multiresistant Human Pathogenic Yeasts","volume":"50","author":"Kolecka","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2676","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01492-16","article-title":"Identification and Antifungal Susceptibility Profiles of Candida haemulonii Species Complex Clinical Isolates from a Multicenter Study in China","volume":"54","author":"Hou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e49","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2016.49","article-title":"Candida haemulonii species complex: An emerging species in India and its genetic diversity assessed with multilocus sequence and amplified fragment-length polymorphism analyses","volume":"5","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2019, June 24). Search on: MycoBank_Advanced. Available online: http:\/\/www.mycobank.org\/Biolomics.aspx?Table=Mycobank_Advanced&Page=200&ViewMode=Basic."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02538724","article-title":"Torulopsis haemulonii nov. spec., a yeast from the Atlantic Ocean","volume":"28","author":"Kolipinski","year":"1962","journal-title":"Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2010.05.030","article-title":"Molecular characterization of a crustin-like antimicrobial peptide in the giant tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, and its expression profile in response to various immunostimulants and challenge with WSSV","volume":"216","author":"Antony","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-016-1254-0","article-title":"Susceptibility to antifungal agents and enzymatic activity of Candida haemulonii and Cutaneotrichosporon dermatis isolated from soft corals on the Brazilian reefs","volume":"198","author":"Pagani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2019, June 06). Available online: http:\/\/www.mycobank.org\/BioloMICS.aspx?TableKey=14682616000000089&Rec=246&Fields=All."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-16.1.141","article-title":"Occurrence of human-associated yeasts in the feces and pool waters of captive bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)","volume":"16","author":"Buck","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-009-9539-z","article-title":"Yeast microflora isolated from brazilian cassava roots: Taxonomical classification based on molecular identification","volume":"60","author":"Ferreira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.14411\/fp.2001.023","article-title":"Mortality caused by experimental infection with the yeast Candida haemulonii in the adults of Ornithodoros moubata (Acarina: Argasidae)","volume":"48","year":"2001","journal-title":"Folia Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"306","article-title":"Characterization and optimization of physicochemical properties of dairy effluents","volume":"36","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1567-1364.2008.00372.x","article-title":"Candida ruelliae sp. nov., a novel yeast species isolated from flowers of Ruellia sp. (Acanthaceae)","volume":"8","author":"Saluja","year":"2008","journal-title":"FEMS Yeast Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1080\/02681219180000511","article-title":"Candida haemulonii from clinical specimens in the USA","volume":"29","author":"Gargeya","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Med. Vet. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"195","article-title":"Multidrug-Resistant Candida haemulonii and C. auris, Tel Aviv, Israel","volume":"23","author":"Berman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dku321","article-title":"Candida haemulonii complex: Species identification and antifungal susceptibility profiles of clinical isolates from Brazil","volume":"70","author":"Ramos","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12540","article-title":"Primary deep cutaneous candidiasis caused by Candida duobushaemulonii in a 68-year-old man: The first case report and literature review","volume":"59","author":"Fang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-02760160166","article-title":"Candida duobushaemulonii: An emerging rare pathogenic yeast isolated from recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis in Brazil","volume":"111","author":"Boatto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s12281-017-0300-y","article-title":"Candida haemulonii sensu lato: Update of the Determination of Susceptibility Profile in Argentina and Literature Review","volume":"11","author":"Isla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Fungal Infect. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-008-9238-y","article-title":"Candida alocasiicola sp. nov., Candida hainanensis sp. nov., Candida heveicola sp. nov. and Candida musiphila sp. nov., novel anamorphic, ascomycetous yeast species isolated from plants","volume":"94","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4009","DOI":"10.1099\/ijsem.0.001302","article-title":"Candida vulturna pro tempore sp. nov., a dimorphic yeast species related to the Candida haemulonis species complex isolated from flowers and clinical sample","volume":"66","author":"Sipickzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-010-9451-3","article-title":"Candida chanthaburiensis sp. nov., Candida kungkrabaensis sp. nov. and Candida suratensis sp. nov., three novel yeast species from decaying plant materials submerged in water of mangrove forests","volume":"98","author":"Limtong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-013-1313-5","article-title":"Candida konsanensis sp. nov., a new yeast species isolated from Jasminum adenophyllum in Thailand with potentially carboxymethyl cellulase-producing capability","volume":"29","author":"Sarawan","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1002\/yea.3208","article-title":"Metschnikowia: Half tetrads, a regicide and the fountain of youth","volume":"33","author":"Lachance","year":"2016","journal-title":"Yeast"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256688","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1256688","article-title":"Global diversity and geography of soil fungi","volume":"346","author":"Tedersoo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.118.301482","article-title":"Diverse Lineages of Candida albicans Live on Old Oaks","volume":"211","author":"Bensasson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12156","article-title":"Clinical and tree hollow populations of human pathogenic yeast in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada are different","volume":"57","author":"Carvalho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s00294-018-0867-z","article-title":"Genomes shed light on the secret life of Candida glabrata: Not so asexual, not so commensal","volume":"65","author":"Fairhead","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buzzini, P., Lachance, M.-A., and Yurkov, A. (2017). Phylloplane Yeasts in Temperate Climates. Yeasts in Natural Ecosystems: Diversity, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-62683-3"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"20172733","article-title":"The ecology of insect\u2013yeast relationships and its relevance to human industry","volume":"285","author":"Madden","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13398","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1208362109","article-title":"Role of social wasps in Saccharomyces cerevisiae ecology and evolution","volume":"109","author":"Stefanini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1816","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2410.180649","article-title":"Candida auris in Healthcare Facilities, New York, USA, 2013\u20132017","volume":"24","author":"Adams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir482","article-title":"Emergence and rapid regional spread of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"53","author":"Won","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1714373","article-title":"A Candida auris Outbreak and Its Control in an Intensive Care Setting","volume":"379","author":"Eyre","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00029-17","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00029-17","article-title":"Candida auris: A Review of the Literature","volume":"31","author":"Taori","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2007.131765","article-title":"Candida auris\u2013Associated Candidemia, South Africa","volume":"20","author":"Magobo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welsh, R.M., Sexton, D.J., Forsberg, K., Vallabhaneni, S., and Litvintseva, A. (2019). Insights into the Unique Nature of the East Asian Clade of the Emerging Pathogenic Yeast Candida auris. J. Clin. Microbiol., 57.","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00007-19"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1733","article-title":"A SNP in the ABCC11 gene is the determinant of human earwax type","volume":"38","author":"Yoshiura","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215108003307","article-title":"Antibacterial and antifungal properties of human cerumen","volume":"123","author":"Lum","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"81","article-title":"The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration","volume":"2","author":"Steffen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anthr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01024","article-title":"Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus: A Consequence of Antifungal Use in Agriculture?","volume":"8","author":"Berger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2019, June 06). FAOSTAT. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/faostat\/en\/#data\/RP."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20150460","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0460","article-title":"Clinical implications of globally emerging azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"371","author":"Meis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-017-1007-2","article-title":"Environmental pollution with antimicrobial agents from bulk drug manufacturing industries in Hyderabad, South India, is associated with dissemination of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase and carbapenemase-producing pathogens","volume":"45","author":"Baars","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas, N., Lucas, R., Bunting, P., Hardy, A., Rosenqvist, A., and Simard, M. (2017). Distribution and drivers of global mangrove forest change, 1996\u20132010. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0179302"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0170","article-title":"Aquaculture: Global status and trends","volume":"365","author":"Bostock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12134","article-title":"Antimicrobial use in aquaculture re-examined: Its relevance to antimicrobial resistance and to animal and human health: Aquacultural antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance","volume":"15","author":"Cabello","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12886","article-title":"The use of probiotics in aquaculture","volume":"119","author":"Hai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00061-10","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00061-10","article-title":"Global Warming Will Bring New Fungal Diseases for Mammals","volume":"1","author":"Casadevall","year":"2010","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1239401","article-title":"Climate Change and Infectious Diseases: From Evidence to a Predictive Framework","volume":"341","author":"Altizer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10947","article-title":"Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health","volume":"484","author":"Fisher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar1965","article-title":"Recent Asian origin of chytrid fungi causing global amphibian declines","volume":"360","author":"Rieux","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.01.047","article-title":"White-Nose Syndrome fungus introduced from Europe to North America","volume":"25","author":"Leopardi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix744","article-title":"Approach to the Investigation and Management of Patients with Candida auris, an Emerging Multidrug-Resistant Yeast","volume":"66","author":"Tsay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Journal of Fungi"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/5\/3\/58\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:03:11Z","timestamp":1760187791000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2309-608X\/5\/3\/58"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,6]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jof5030058"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jof5030058","relation":{},"ISSN":["2309-608X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2309-608X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,6]]}}}