{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]],"date-time":"2025-11-22T17:04:36Z","timestamp":1763831076566,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,16]],"date-time":"2019-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576454400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Infections caused by invasive molds, including Aspergillus spp., can be difficult to diagnose and remain associated with high morbidity and mortality. Thus, early diagnosis and targeted systemic antifungal treatment remains the most important predictive factor for a successful outcome in immunocompromised individuals with invasive mold infections. Diagnosis remains difficult due to low sensitivities of diagnostic tests including culture and other mycological tests for mold pathogens, particularly in patients on mold-active antifungal prophylaxis. As a result, antifungal treatment is rarely targeted and reliable markers for treatment monitoring and outcome prediction are missing. Thus, there is a need for improved markers to diagnose invasive mold infections, monitor response to treatment, and assist in determining when antifungal therapy should be escalated, switched, or can be stopped. This review focuses on the role of immunologic markers and specifically cytokines in diagnosis and treatment monitoring of invasive mold infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof5040116","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,17]],"date-time":"2019-12-17T02:59:01Z","timestamp":1576551541000},"page":"116","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Immune Parameters for Diagnosis and Treatment Monitoring in Invasive Mold Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6632-9587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Jenks","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92103, USA"},{"name":"Clinical and Translational Fungal\u2014Working Group, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3637-1447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Rawlings","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical and Translational Fungal\u2014Working Group, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"},{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carol","family":"Garcia-Vidal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, 08036 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7386-7495","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philipp","family":"Koehler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD), Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), University Hospital of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany"},{"name":"Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1517-6426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toine","family":"Mercier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hematology, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5751-9311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juergen","family":"Prattes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine and Division of Pulmonology, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2946-7785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cornelia","family":"Lass-Fl\u00f6rl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8119-8749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M","family":"Martin-Gomez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Vall d\u2019Hebron University Hospital, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4425-6134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dieter","family":"Buchheidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8287-928X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Livio","family":"Pagano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hematology, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4974-5607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Pierre","family":"Gangneux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHU de Rennes, Univ Rennes, Inserm, Irset (Institut de recherche en sant\u00e9, environnement et travail)\u2014UMR_S, 1085 Rennes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Frank","family":"van de Veerdonk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 Nijmegen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mihai","family":"Netea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 Nijmegen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8935-8030","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agostinho","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"ICVS\/3B\u2019s\u2014PT Government Associate Laboratory, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1653-2824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Hoenigl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical and Translational Fungal\u2014Working Group, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"},{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA"},{"name":"Section of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine and Division of Pulmonology, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2018.08.005","article-title":"Rare mould infections caused by Mucorales, Lomentospora prolificans and Fusarium, in San Diego, CA: The role of antifungal combination therapy","volume":"52","author":"Jenks","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. 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