{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T03:54:58Z","timestamp":1792641298072,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,28]],"date-time":"2022-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651104000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fungal infections commonly present with myriad symptoms that mimic other clinical entities, notable amongst which is tuberculosis. Besides histoplasmosis and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, which can mimic TB, this review has identified several other fungal infections which also do. A total of 80 individual cases misdiagnosed as TB are highlighted: aspergillosis (n = 18, 22.5%), histoplasmosis (n = 16, 20%), blastomycosis (n = 14, 17.5%), cryptococcosis (n = 11, 13.8%), talaromycosis (n = 7, 8.8%), coccidioidomycosis (n = 5, 6.3%), mucormycosis (n = 4, 5%), sporotrichosis (n = 3, 3.8%), phaeohyphomycosis (n = 1, 1.3%) and chromoblastomycosis (n = 1, 1.3%). Case series from India and Pakistan reported over 100 cases of chronic and allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis had received anti-TB therapy before the correct diagnosis was made. Forty-five cases (56.3%) had favorable outcomes, and 25 (33.8%) died, outcome was unclear in the remainder. Seventeen (21.3%) cases were infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Diagnostic modalities were histopathology (n = 46, 57.5%), culture (n = 42, 52.5%), serology (n = 18, 22.5%), cytology (n = 2, 2.5%), gene sequencing (n = 5, 6.3%) and microscopy (n = 10, 12.5%) including Gram stain, India ink preparation, bone marrow smear and KOH mount. We conclude that the above fungal infections should always be considered or ruled out whenever a patient presents with symptoms suggestive of tuberculosis which is unconfirmed thereby reducing prolonged hospital stay and mortalities associated with a delayed or incorrect diagnosis of fungal infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8050460","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,28]],"date-time":"2022-04-28T22:20:06Z","timestamp":1651184406000},"page":"460","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["Pulmonary and Extrapulmonary Manifestations of Fungal Infections Misdiagnosed as Tuberculosis: The Need for Prompt Diagnosis and Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0509-2480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bassey E.","family":"Ekeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Mycology Society of Nigeria, Lagos 101017, Nigeria"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar 540271, Nigeria"},{"name":"Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calabar, Calabar 540271, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adeyinka A.","family":"Davies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Mycology Society of Nigeria, Lagos 101017, Nigeria"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Olabisi Onabanjo University Teaching Hospital, Sagamu 121102, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8111-0743","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iriagbonse I.","family":"Osaigbovo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Mycology Society of Nigeria, Lagos 101017, Nigeria"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Medicine, College of Medical Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City 300213, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adilia","family":"Warris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rita O.","family":"Oladele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Mycology Society of Nigeria, Lagos 101017, Nigeria"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos 101017, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5626-2251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David W.","family":"Denning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester M13 9WL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bongomin, F., Gago, S., Oladele, R.O., and Denning, D.W. 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