{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T13:38:28Z","timestamp":1791898708858,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":249,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Invasive fungal diseases (IFDs) are of huge concern in resource-limited settings, particularly in Africa, due to the unavailability of diagnostic armamentarium for IFDs, thus making definitive diagnosis challenging. IFDs have non-specific systemic manifestations overlapping with more frequent illnesses, such as tuberculosis, HIV, and HIV-related opportunistic infections and malignancies. Consequently, IFDs are often undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. We critically reviewed the available literature on IFDs in Africa to provide a better understanding of their epidemiology, disease burden to guide future research and interventions. Cryptococcosis is the most encountered IFD in Africa, accounting for most of the HIV-related deaths in sub-Saharan Africa. Invasive aspergillosis, though somewhat underdiagnosed and\/or misdiagnosed as tuberculosis, is increasingly being reported with a similar predilection towards people living with HIV. More cases of histoplasmosis are also being reported with recent epidemiological studies, particularly from Western Africa, showing high prevalence rates amongst presumptive tuberculosis patients and patients living with HIV. The burden of pneumocystis pneumonia has reduced significantly probably due to increased uptake of anti-retroviral therapy among people living with HIV both in Africa, and globally. Mucormycosis, talaromycosis, emergomycosis, blastomycosis, and coccidiomycosis have also been reported but with very few studies from the literature. The emergence of resistance to most of the available antifungal drugs in Africa is yet of huge concern as reported in other regions. IFDs in Africa is much more common than it appears and contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality. Huge investment is needed to drive awareness and fungi related research especially in diagnostics and antifungal therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8121236","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T05:25:45Z","timestamp":1669094745000},"page":"1236","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Invasive Fungal Diseases in Africa: A Critical Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4515-8517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felix","family":"Bongomin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0509-2480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bassey E.","family":"Ekeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar P.O. Box 540281, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Winnie","family":"Kibone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7072, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6155-4718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lauryn","family":"Nsenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale P.O. Box 317, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1289-0111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ronald","family":"Olum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, St. Francis\u2019s Hospital Nsambya, Kampala P.O. Box 7176, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asa","family":"Itam-Eyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar P.O. Box 540281, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2745-0450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marius Paulin Ngouanom","family":"Kuate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea P.O. Box 63, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francis Pebalo","family":"Pebolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Reproductive Health, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adeyinka A.","family":"Davies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Olabisi Onabanjo University Teaching Hospital, Sagamu P.O. Box 121102, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Musa","family":"Manga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 4114 McGavran-Greenberg, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bright","family":"Ocansey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Evolution, Infection and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5270-3539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Kwizera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research Laboratory, Department of Research, Infectious Diseases Institute, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 22418, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5852-9674","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph Baruch","family":"Baluku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonology, Kiruddu National Referral Hospital, Kampala P.O. Box 7178, Uganda"},{"name":"Makerere Lung Institute, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 22418, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.13339","article-title":"Serious fungal diseases in Democratic Republic of Congo\u2014Incidence and prevalence estimates","volume":"64","author":"Kamwiziku","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"30329","article-title":"The Global Burden of Fungal Diseases","volume":"30","author":"Vallabhaneni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Firacative, C. (2020). Invasive fungal disease in humans: Are we aware of the real impact?. Mem. Inst. 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