{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T06:46:12Z","timestamp":1791960372715,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]],"date-time":"2022-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoX"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The highly contagious coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been declared a global pandemic and public health emergency as it has taken the lives of over 5.7 million in more than 180 different countries. This disease is characterized by respiratory tract symptoms, such as dry cough and shortness of breath, as well as other symptoms, including fever, chills, and fatigue. COVID-19 is also characterized by the excessive release of cytokines causing inflammatory injury to the lungs and other organs. It is advised to undergo precautionary measures, such as vaccination, social distancing, use of masks, hygiene, and a healthy diet. This review is aimed at summarizing the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and potential biologically active compounds (bioactive) found in plants and plant food. We conclude that many plant food bioactive compounds exhibit antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties and support in attenuating organ damage due to reduced cytokine release and improving the recovery process from COVID-19 infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jox12040020","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,9]],"date-time":"2022-10-09T01:43:11Z","timestamp":1665279791000},"page":"289-306","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Antiviral and Anti-Inflammatory Plant-Derived Bioactive Compounds and Their Potential Use in the Treatment of COVID-19-Related Pathologies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Purvi","family":"Trivedi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management and Perioperative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amna","family":"Abbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS B2N 5E3, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6419-9168","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Lehmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management and Perioperative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3435-0052","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H. P. Vasantha","family":"Rupasinghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS B2N 5E3, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6905e1","article-title":"Initial Public Health Response and Interim Clinical Guidance for the 2019 Novel Coronavirus Outbreak\u2014United States, December 31, 2019\u2013February 4, 2020","volume":"69","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2000380","article-title":"Role of Aging and the Immune Response to Respiratory Viral Infections: Potential Implications for COVID-19","volume":"205","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2020.102433","article-title":"The Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Outbreak","volume":"109","author":"Rothan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-2-69","article-title":"Chloroquine Is a Potent Inhibitor of SARS Coronavirus Infection and Spread","volume":"2","author":"Vincent","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2001272","article-title":"Importation and Human-to-Human Transmission of a Novel Coronavirus in Vietnam","volume":"382","author":"Phan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000058","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.4.2000058","article-title":"Pattern of Early Human-to-Human Transmission of Wuhan 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-NCoV), December 2019 to January 2020","volume":"25","author":"Riou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Euro surveill."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"147","article-title":"Management of corona virus disease-19 (COVID-19): The Zhejiang experience","volume":"49","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13091","article-title":"COVID-19 Diagnosis and Management: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"288","author":"Pascarella","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2003.017665","article-title":"Antiviral Agents and Corticosteroids in the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)","volume":"59","author":"Yu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00408","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00408-17","article-title":"Potent Inhibition of HIV-1 Replication in Resting CD4 T Cells by Resveratrol and Pterostilbene","volume":"61","author":"Chan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(05)70216-4","article-title":"Global Epidemiology of Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"5","author":"Shepard","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C.-J., Lin, H.-J., Chen, T.-H., Hsu, Y.-A., Liu, C.-S., Hwang, G.-Y., and Wan, L. (2015). Polygonum Cuspidatum and Its Active Components Inhibit Replication of the Influenza Virus through Toll-like Receptor 9-Induced Interferon Beta Expression. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125288"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976196","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/976196","article-title":"Efficacy of Brazilian Propolis against Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection in Mice and Their Modes of Antiherpetic Efficacies","volume":"2011","author":"Shimizu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Gelderblom, H.R. (1996). Structure and Classification of Viruses, University of Texas Medical Branch."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.037","article-title":"The Pathogenesis and Treatment of the \u2018Cytokine Storm\u2019 in COVID-19","volume":"80","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.2478\/jvetres-2018-0035","article-title":"Coronaviruses in Avian Species\u2014Review with Focus on Epidemiology and Diagnosis in Wild Birds","volume":"62","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.45472","article-title":"Zoonotic Origins of Human Coronaviruses","volume":"16","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2014.02.003","article-title":"Resveratrol Ameliorates Hepatic Metaflammation and Inhibits NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation","volume":"63","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"3409","article-title":"Novel 2019 Coronavirus Structure, Mechanism of Action, Antiviral Drug Promises and Rule out against Its Treatment","volume":"39","author":"Boopathi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0688-y","article-title":"Functional Assessment of Cell Entry and Receptor Usage for SARS-CoV-2 and Other Lineage B Betacoronaviruses","volume":"5","author":"Letko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005","article-title":"Characterization and Complete Genome Sequence of a Novel Coronavirus, Coronavirus HKU1, from Patients with Pneumonia","volume":"79","author":"Woo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03712","article-title":"Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Protects from Severe Acute Lung Failure","volume":"436","author":"Imai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1267","article-title":"A Crucial Role of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS Coronavirus-Induced Lung Injury","volume":"11","author":"Kuba","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2018.01.043","article-title":"The Protective Effect of Resveratrol on Vascular Aging by Modulation of the Renin-Angiotensin System","volume":"270","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.10266","article-title":"Understanding Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Signaling in Vascular Pathophysiology","volume":"71","author":"Eguchi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000749","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00749-2020","article-title":"Will Children Reveal Their Secret? The Coronavirus Dilemma","volume":"55","author":"Cristiani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1080\/14756366.2019.1690480","article-title":"Inhibition of SARS-CoV 3CL Protease by Flavonoids","volume":"35","author":"Jo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Enzym. Inhib. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01949","article-title":"Overview of Immune Response During SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Lessons From the Past","volume":"11","author":"Shah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-020-09944-5","article-title":"The Natural History, Pathobiology, and Clinical Manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 Infections","volume":"15","author":"Machhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131774","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.131774","article-title":"Comorbid Diabetes Results in Immune Dysregulation and Enhanced Disease Severity Following MERS-CoV Infection","volume":"4","author":"Kulcsar","year":"2019","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofac008","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac008","article-title":"Outpatient Therapies for COVID-19: How Do We Choose?","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007764","article-title":"Remdesivir for the Treatment of Covid-19\u2014Final Report","volume":"383","author":"Beigel","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2805","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO00216J","article-title":"Insight into the Potential Application of Polyphenol-Rich Dietary Intervention in Degenerative Disease Management","volume":"11","author":"Quero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del Bo\u2019, C., Bernardi, S., Marino, M., Porrini, M., Tucci, M., Guglielmetti, S., Cherubini, A., Carrieri, B., Kirkup, B., and Kroon, P. (2019). Systematic Review on Polyphenol Intake and Health Outcomes: Is There Sufficient Evidence to Define a Health-Promoting Polyphenol-Rich Dietary Pattern?. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11061355"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/79.5.727","article-title":"Polyphenols: Food Sources and Bioavailability","volume":"79","author":"Manach","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/81.1.215S","article-title":"Polyphenols: Antioxidants and Beyond","volume":"81","author":"Scalbert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yahfoufi, N., Alsadi, N., Jambi, M., and Matar, C. (2018). The Immunomodulatory and Anti-Inflammatory Role of Polyphenols. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111618"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3337","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0112973","article-title":"Plant Foods and Herbal Sources of Resveratrol","volume":"50","author":"Burns","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/gls183","article-title":"Chronic Resveratrol Treatment Ameliorates Cell Adhesion and Mitigates the Inflammatory Phenotype in Senescent Human Fibroblasts","volume":"68","author":"Pitozzi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jang, I.-A., Kim, E.N., Lim, J.H., Kim, M.Y., Ban, T.H., Yoon, H.E., Park, C.W., Chang, Y.S., and Choi, B.S. (2018). Effects of Resveratrol on the Renin-Angiotensin System in the Aging Kidney. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111741"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1097\/01.shk.0000191379.62897.1d","article-title":"Green Tea Polyphenol Extract Attenuates Zymosan-Induced Non-Septic Shock in Mice","volume":"26","author":"Mazzon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0000000000000502","article-title":"The Protective Role of Curcumin in Zymosan-Induced Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome in Mice","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.4161\/oxim.2.5.9498","article-title":"Plant Polyphenols as Dietary Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease","volume":"2","author":"Pandey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell Longev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chojnacka, K., Skrzypczak, D., Izydorczyk, G., Mikula, K., Szopa, D., and Witek-Krowiak, A. (2021). Antiviral Properties of Polyphenols from Plants. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10102277"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11334","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.20.11334-11339.2004","article-title":"Small Molecules Blocking the Entry of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus into Host Cells","volume":"78","author":"Yi","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2006.04.014","article-title":"Emodin Blocks the SARS Coronavirus Spike Protein and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Interaction","volume":"74","author":"Ho","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antiviral. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.120.317015","article-title":"Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2: SARS-CoV-2 Receptor and Regulator of the Renin-Angiotensin System: Celebrating the 20th Anniversary of the Discovery of ACE2","volume":"126","author":"Gheblawi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2195","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.117.310129","article-title":"Resveratrol Inhibits Growth of Experimental Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Associated With Upregulation of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2","volume":"37","author":"Moran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-018-0824-3","article-title":"Resveratrol Ameliorates Maternal and Post-Weaning High-Fat Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease via Renin-Angiotensin System","volume":"17","author":"Tiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2014.03.006","article-title":"Cross Talk between Angiotensin-(1-7)\/Mas Axis and Sirtuins in Adipose Tissue and Metabolism of High-Fat Feed Mice","volume":"55","author":"Garcia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtm.2015.12.002","article-title":"Evaluation of Antiviral Activities of Houttuynia Cordata Thunb. Extract, Quercetin, Quercetrin and Cinanserin on Murine Coronavirus and Dengue Virus Infection","volume":"9","author":"Chiow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s12539-016-0157-8","article-title":"Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Studies to Predict Flavonoid Binding on the Surface of DENV2 E Protein","volume":"9","author":"Ismail","year":"2017","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2011.01507.x","article-title":"Suppression of Hepatitis C Virus by the Flavonoid Quercetin Is Mediated by Inhibition of NS3 Protease Activity","volume":"19","author":"Bachmetov","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tchesnokov, E.P., Feng, J.Y., Porter, D.P., and G\u00f6tte, M. (2019). Mechanism of Inhibition of Ebola Virus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase by Remdesivir. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11040326"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, S.-C., Ho, C.-T., Chuo, W.-H., Li, S., Wang, T.T., and Lin, C.-C. (2017). Effective Inhibition of MERS-CoV Infection by Resveratrol. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2253-8"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"3225","article-title":"Stilbene-Based Natural Compounds as Promising Drug Candidates against COVID-19","volume":"39","author":"Wahedi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.104859","article-title":"Candidate Drugs against SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19","volume":"157","author":"McKee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goc, A., Sumera, W., Rath, M., and Niedzwiecki, A. (2021). Phenolic Compounds Disrupt Spike-Mediated Receptor-Binding and Entry of SARS-CoV-2 Pseudo-Virions. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253489"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dellafiora, L., Dorne, J.L., Galaverna, G., and Dall\u2019Asta, C. (2020). Preventing the Interaction between Coronaviruses Spike Protein and Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme 2: An In Silico Mechanistic Case Study on Emodin as a Potential Model Compound. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10186358"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2020.02.008","article-title":"Analysis of Therapeutic Targets for SARS-CoV-2 and Discovery of Potential Drugs by Computational Methods","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wink, M. (2020). Potential of DNA Intercalating Alkaloids and Other Plant Secondary Metabolites against SARS-CoV-2 Causing COVID-19. Diversity, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/d12050175"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3906\/biy-2005-114","article-title":"Potentials of Plant-Based Substance to Inhabit and Probable Cure for the COVID-19","volume":"44","author":"Jahan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Turk. J. Biol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1772676","article-title":"Gemcitabine, Lycorine and Oxysophoridine Inhibit Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in Cell Culture","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00277","article-title":"Lycorine Derivative LY-55 Inhibits EV71 and CVA16 Replication Through Downregulating Autophagy","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"22425","article-title":"In Search of Preventive Strategies: Novel High-CBD Cannabis Sativa Extracts Modulate ACE2 Expression in COVID-19 Gateway Tissues","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81049-2","article-title":"Cannabis Compounds Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Activity in Vitro in COVID-19-Related Inflammation in Lung Epithelial Cells and pro-Inflammatory Activity in Macrophages","volume":"11","author":"Anil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1089\/can.2020.0043","article-title":"Cannabidiol Modulates Cytokine Storm in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Induced by Simulated Viral Infection Using Synthetic RNA","volume":"5","author":"Khodadadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cannabis Cannabinoid Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-021-02795-5","article-title":"The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Clinical and Biochemical Parameters of Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"19","author":"Doaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175346662093717","DOI":"10.1177\/1753466620937170","article-title":"Targeting the Gut\u2013Lung Microbiota Axis by Means of a High-Fibre Diet and Probiotics May Have Anti-Inflammatory Effects in COVID-19 Infection","volume":"14","author":"Conte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabetakis, I., Lordan, R., Norton, C., and Tsoupras, A. (2020). COVID-19: The Inflammation Link and the Role of Nutrition in Potential Mitigation. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051466"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6307457","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/6307457","article-title":"Potential of Plant Bioactive Compounds as SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease (Mpro) and Spike (S) Glycoprotein Inhibitors: A Molecular Docking Study","volume":"2020","author":"Tallei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scientifica"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23379","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA03774E","article-title":"Natural Products\u2019 Role against COVID-19","volume":"10","author":"Antonio","year":"2020","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4875","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.03011-14","article-title":"Screening of an FDA-Approved Compound Library Identifies Four Small-Molecule Inhibitors of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Replication in Cell Culture","volume":"58","author":"Jochmans","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2014.0090","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Chloroquine against Dengue Virus Type 2 Replication in Aotus Monkeys","volume":"28","author":"Farias","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2643","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612043383791","article-title":"Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine as Inhibitors of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) Activity","volume":"10","author":"Romanelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine and Azithromycin as a Treatment of COVID-19: Results of an Open-Label Non-Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"56","author":"Gautret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25733","article-title":"Clinical Trial Analysis of 2019-NCoV Therapy Registered in China","volume":"92","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-013-9744-6","article-title":"Cepharanthine Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Mice Mastitis by Suppressing the NF-\u039aB Signaling Pathway","volume":"37","author":"Ershun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2016.03.010","article-title":"Cepharanthine Inhibits in Vitro VSMC Proliferation and Migration and Vascular Inflammatory Responses Mediated by RAW264.7","volume":"34","author":"Paudel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1007\/s43440-020-00132-z","article-title":"Cepharanthine: A Review of the Antiviral Potential of a Japanese-Approved Alopecia Drug in COVID-19","volume":"72","author":"Rogosnitzky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharm. Rep"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2016.00019","article-title":"Cannabis Sativa: The Plant of the Thousand and One Molecules","volume":"7","author":"Andre","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfs315","article-title":"\u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol Impairs the Inflammatory Response to Influenza Infection: Role of Antigen-Presenting Cells and the Cannabinoid Receptors 1 and 2","volume":"131","author":"Karmaus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12441","article-title":"Endocannabinoid Signalling in Innate and Adaptive Immunity","volume":"144","author":"Battistini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e024793","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-024793","article-title":"Oral Cannabinoids in People Living with HIV on Effective Antiretroviral Therapy: CTN PT028-Study Protocol for a Pilot Randomised Trial to Assess Safety, Tolerability and Effect on Immune Activation","volume":"9","author":"Costiniuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-8490.199780","article-title":"Potential of Cannabidiol for the Treatment of Viral Hepatitis","volume":"9","author":"Lowe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2016.04.020","article-title":"Gamma-Linolenic Acid, Dihommo-Gamma Linolenic, Eicosanoids and Inflammatory Processes","volume":"785","author":"Sergeant","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2018.03.010","article-title":"Supplementation with Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid Reduces High Levels of Circulating Proinflammatory Cytokines in Aging Adults: A Randomized, Controlled Study","volume":"132","author":"Tan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allam-Ndoul, B., Gu\u00e9nard, F., Barbier, O., and Vohl, M.-C. (2017). A Study of the Differential Effects of Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) on Gene Expression Profiles of Stimulated Thp-1 Macrophages. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9050424"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1103483","article-title":"Specialized Proresolving Mediators Enhance Human B Cell Differentiation to Antibody-Secreting Cells","volume":"189","author":"Ramon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1801157","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201801157","article-title":"EPA+DHA, but Not ALA, Improved Lipids and Inflammation Status in Hypercholesterolemic Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"63","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12442","article-title":"Fish Oil Supplementation Does Not Lower C-Reactive Protein or Interleukin-6 Levels in Healthy Adults","volume":"279","author":"Muldoon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3945\/an.112.003046","article-title":"The Interplay between Fiber and the Intestinal Microbiome in the Inflammatory Response","volume":"4","author":"Kuo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, O., Mah, E., Dioum, E., Marwaha, A., Shanmugam, S., Malleshi, N., Sudha, V., Gayathri, R., Unnikrishnan, R., and Anjana, R.M. (2021). The Role of Oat Nutrients in the Immune System: A Narrative Review. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041048"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02279-15","article-title":"Priming of the Respiratory Tract with Immunobiotic Lactobacillus Plantarum Limits Infection of Alveolar Macrophages with Recombinant Pneumonia Virus of Mice (RK2-PVM)","volume":"90","author":"Dyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20140625","article-title":"Respiratory Influenza Virus Infection Induces Intestinal Immune Injury via Microbiota-Mediated Th17 Cell-Dependent Inflammation","volume":"211","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0386-z","article-title":"Influenza A Virus Infection Impacts Systemic Microbiota Dynamics and Causes Quantitative Enteric Dysbiosis","volume":"6","author":"Yildiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.142","article-title":"Emerging Pathogenic Links between Microbiota and the Gut-Lung Axis","volume":"15","author":"Budden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Na.t Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2640","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02640","article-title":"Respiratory Viral Infection-Induced Microbiome Alterations and Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia","volume":"9","author":"Hanada","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1159\/000513180","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Virus Manifestations in the Gastrointestinal Tract: Therapeutic Implications","volume":"37","author":"Jefremow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Visc. Med."}],"container-title":["Journal of Xenobiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2039-4713\/12\/4\/20\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:48:06Z","timestamp":1760143686000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2039-4713\/12\/4\/20"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jox12040020"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jox12040020","relation":{},"ISSN":["2039-4713"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2039-4713","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]]}}}