{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:38:54Z","timestamp":1791999534870,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764633600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoX"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alternaria mycotoxins represent a significant and emerging concern in the field of food safety due to their widespread occurrence in diverse food and feed commodities, including cereals, tomatoes, oilseeds, and dried fruits. Among these, alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA), and altertoxin-I (ATX-I) are the most frequently detected, often co-occurring at varying concentrations, thereby increasing the complexity of exposure and risk assessment. The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is a crucial target of these toxins, as well as the liver, particularly considering its detoxifying role. Nevertheless, despite being a source of possible gastrointestinal and hepatic toxicity, there is still scarce data on the toxicokinetics of Alternaria toxins, on their mode of action, and respective toxic effects. To date, in vitro studies have shown that different Alternaria mycotoxins exhibit diverse toxicological effects, which may be dependent on their chemical structure. AOH and ATX-I have shown genotoxicity and cytotoxicity, mainly through interaction with the DNA and apoptosis, respectively. Tentoxin (TEN) has displayed hepatotoxic potential via impairment of detoxification pathways, and altenuene (ALT) has revealed lower toxicity. In vivo, AME and ATX-II revealed genotoxicity, while AOH and ATX-I showed context-dependent variability in their effects. Altogether, this review emphasizes that there is still a great lack of knowledge on these mycotoxins and an urgent need for more comprehensive toxicological and occurrence data to support proper risk assessment and, ultimately, regulatory decision-making.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jox15060205","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T12:39:43Z","timestamp":1764679183000},"page":"205","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["From Food to Humans: The Toxicological Effects of Alternaria Mycotoxins in the Liver and Colon"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3904-3467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita Sofia","family":"Vilela","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1836-397X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Pina-Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (CE3C) & CHANGE\u2013Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Qu\u00edmica e Biol\u00f3gica, Escola Superior de Tecnologia do Barreiro, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Set\u00fabal, Rua Am\u00e9rico da Silva Marinho, 2839-001 Lavradio, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0637-2222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9lia","family":"Ventura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Comprehensive Health Research Centre (CHRC), NOVA Medical School, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1150-190 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2020.735055","article-title":"Tolerance and Bio-Accumulation of Aflatoxin B1 in Invertebrate Litopenaeus Vannamei and Vertebrate Oreochromis Niloticus","volume":"524","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.114427","article-title":"Alterations in Daphnia Magna Exposed to Enniatin B and Beauvericin Provide Additional Value as Environmental Indicators","volume":"249","author":"Pakkanen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. 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