{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T03:59:56Z","timestamp":1780891196117,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,7]],"date-time":"2026-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780790400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoX"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic opioid use disrupts the female endocrine system, affecting the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal (HPG), hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal (HPA), and hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013thyroid (HPT) axes. In women, these disruptions manifest as menstrual irregularity, infertility, early menopause, reduced bone mineral density, adrenal insufficiency, and altered mood and sexual function. Despite the magnitude of the opioid epidemic and its impact on women of reproductive age, the existing evidence base is overwhelmingly male: across the major studies of opioid-induced endocrinopathy reviewed here, 99.5 percent of participants were male. Sex-specific mechanisms, prevalence estimates, and clinical thresholds therefore remain poorly defined, and current guidelines do not adequately address the reproductive, skeletal, and adrenal consequences of chronic opioid exposure in women. This review synthesizes available human and preclinical evidence on opioid-induced endocrine dysfunction in women across the lifespan, distinguishing established findings from hypotheses extrapolated from male or animal data. We propose a practical framework for routine endocrine screening of HPG, HPA, and HPT axis function, bone health, and fertility, and outline the roles of relevant specialties in multidisciplinary care. Available evidence suggests a substantial risk of endocrine dysfunction in women on chronic opioid therapy, but the precise prevalence remains unknown. Sex-sensitive research, guidelines, and routine screening are urgently needed to close this gap.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jox16030106","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T02:32:46Z","timestamp":1780885966000},"page":"106","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chronic Opioid Use and Endocrine Disruption in Women: Mechanisms, Life-Course Vulnerabilities, and Reproductive Health Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9075-8146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Doonyah","family":"Alucozai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology, and Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Kwo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2026, April 25). 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