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Xenobiotics","JoX"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pesticide contamination of food and environmental matrices represents a potential risk to human health. This study investigated the toxicological effects of commercial glyphosate and dicamba-based herbicide formulations, individually and in combination, on human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells. Cells were exposed to a concentration range of 0.1\u201310,000 mg\/L for 24, 48, and 72 h to determine IC50 values. Subsequent assays were conducted using concentrations based on the lowest IC50 obtained and in the limits established by the Environmental Protection Agency for drinking water. After 48 h of exposure, glyphosate at the highest tested concentration, as well as co-exposure to glyphosate and dicamba, induced significant cytotoxicity, modulation of oxidative stress parameters, and alterations in antioxidant defenses, accompanied by increased rates of apoptosis and necrosis. Dicamba exposure alone also resulted in elevated apoptotic and necrotic cell populations. A reduction in N-acetyl-\u03b2-D-glucosaminidase activity was observed across most tested concentrations, suggesting impaired inflammatory response capacity. This work identified alterations in Caco-2 that impair cellular homeostasis by cytotoxicity, alterations in oxidative stress, antioxidant response, inflammation, apoptosis and necrosis. Future studies investigating inflammatory pathways, genetic damage, and assays with in vivo and in silico models are important to elucidate the mechanism of the cellular damage caused by exposure to these herbicides.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jox16050168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T16:38:16Z","timestamp":1788539896000},"page":"168","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Individual and Combined Effects of Commercial Glyphosate and Dicamba-Based Herbicide Formulations on Cytotoxicity, Oxidative Stress and Cell Death on Human Intestinal Caco-2 Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Gisele de Paula J\u00falio","family":"Garcia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdades Pequeno Pr\u00edncipe, Av. Igua\u00e7u, 333, Curitiba 80230-020, PR, Brazil"},{"name":"Instituto de Pesquisa Pel\u00e9 Pequeno Pr\u00edncipe, Av. Silva Jardim, 1632, \u00c1gua Verde, Curitiba 80250-060, PR, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Carolina Silva","family":"Schiebel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdades Pequeno Pr\u00edncipe, Av. Igua\u00e7u, 333, Curitiba 80230-020, PR, Brazil"},{"name":"Instituto de Pesquisa Pel\u00e9 Pequeno Pr\u00edncipe, Av. 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Silva Jardim, 1632, \u00c1gua Verde, Curitiba 80250-060, PR, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3104-3946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Izonete Cristina","family":"Guiloski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdades Pequeno Pr\u00edncipe, Av. Igua\u00e7u, 333, Curitiba 80230-020, PR, Brazil"},{"name":"Instituto de Pesquisa Pel\u00e9 Pequeno Pr\u00edncipe, Av. 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