{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T23:16:12Z","timestamp":1775862972795,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]],"date-time":"2021-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000738","name":"VA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["I01 CX000479\/CX\/CSRD VA\/United States"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I01 CX000479\/CX\/CSRD VA\/United States"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000738","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018961","name":"Health and Health Services Research Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R41 MD012318\/MD\/NIMHD NIH HHS\/United States"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R41 MD012318\/MD\/NIMHD NIH HHS\/United States"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018961","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article describes a unique therapeutic precision intervention, a formulation of enkephalinase inhibitors, enkephalin, and dopamine-releasing neuronutrients, to induce dopamine homeostasis for detoxification and treatment of individuals genetically predisposed to developing reward deficiency syndrome (RDS). The formulations are based on the results of the addiction risk severity (GARS) test. Based on both neurogenetic and epigenetic evidence, the test evaluates the presence of reward genes and risk alleles. Existing evidence demonstrates that the novel genetic risk testing system can successfully stratify the potential for developing opioid use disorder (OUD) related risks or before initiating opioid analgesic therapy and RDS risk for people in recovery. In the case of opioid use disorders, long-term maintenance agonist treatments like methadone and buprenorphine may create RDS, or RDS may have been in existence, but not recognized. The test will also assess the potential for benefit from medication-assisted treatment with dopamine augmentation. RDS methodology holds a strong promise for reducing the burden of addictive disorders for individuals, their families, and society as a whole by guiding the restoration of dopamine homeostasisthrough anti-reward allostatic neuroadaptations. WC 175.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm11030212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]],"date-time":"2021-03-16T12:01:02Z","timestamp":1615896062000},"page":"212","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["A Novel Precision Approach to Overcome the \u201cAddiction Pandemic\u201d by Incorporating Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) and Dopamine Homeostasis Restoration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6727-803X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth","family":"Blum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"},{"name":"Institute of Psychology, ELTE E\u00f6tv\u00f6s Lor\u00e1nd University, 1117 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Division of Nutrigenomics, The Kenneth Blum Behavioral Neurogenetic Institute, Austin, TX 78712, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Wright University Boonshoff School of Medicine, Dayton, OH 45435, USA"},{"name":"Division of Precision Nutrition, Victory Nutrition International, Lederach, PA 19450, USA"},{"name":"Center for Genomic Testing, Geneus Health LLC, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shan","family":"Kazmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7611-5144","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward J.","family":"Modestino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Curry College, Milton, MA 02186, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bill William","family":"Downs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Precision Nutrition, Victory Nutrition International, Lederach, PA 19450, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Debasis","family":"Bagchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Precision Nutrition, Victory Nutrition International, Lederach, PA 19450, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy &amp; Health Sciences, Texas Southern University, Houston, TX 77004, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Baron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"McLaughlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Nutrigenomics, The Kenneth Blum Behavioral Neurogenetic Institute, Austin, TX 78712, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Nutrigenomics, The Kenneth Blum Behavioral Neurogenetic Institute, Austin, TX 78712, USA"},{"name":"Precision Translational Medicine (Division of Ivitalize), San Antonio, TX 78249, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rehan","family":"Jalali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Nutrigenomics, The Kenneth Blum Behavioral Neurogenetic Institute, Austin, TX 78712, USA"},{"name":"Center for Genomic Testing, Geneus Health LLC, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Panayotis K.","family":"Thanos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology &amp; Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions (BNNLA), Research Institute on Addictions, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Elman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Harvard University, School of Medicine, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5586-5114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajendra D.","family":"Badgaiyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, South Texas Veteran Health Care System, Audie L. 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Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10003, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abdalla","family":"Bowirrat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology and Adelson School of Medicine, Ariel University, Ariel 40700, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mark S.","family":"Gold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2019.03.029","article-title":"Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid-Use Disorder","volume":"94","author":"Oesterle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. 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