{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T12:10:33Z","timestamp":1792757433682,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,20]],"date-time":"2022-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660953600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Reproduction is a complex process, which is based on the cooperation between the endocrine\u2013immune system and the microbiota. Testicular immunity is characterized by the so-called immune privilege, a mechanism that avoids autoimmune attacks against proteins expressed by spermatozoa. Testicular microbiota is connected with the gut microbiota, the most prevalent site of commensals inthe body. Both microbiotas take part inthe development of the immune system and protection againstpathogen invasion. Dysbiosis is caused by concurrent pathologies, such as obesity, diabetes, infections and trauma. The substitution of beneficial bacteria with pathogens may lead to destruction of spermatozoa directly or indirectly and, ultimately, to male infertility. Novel therapeutic interventions, i.e., nutritional interventions and supplementation of natural products, such as, probiotics, prebiotics, antioxidants and polyphenols, may lead to the restoration of the otherwise-impaired male reproductive potential, even if experimental and clinical results are not always concordant. In this review, the structure and immune function of the testis will be described with special reference to the blood\u2013testisbarrier. The regulatory role of both the gut and testicular microbiota will be illustrated in health and disease, also emphasizing therapeutic attempts with natural products for the correction of male infertility, in the era of personalized medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12081335","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,21]],"date-time":"2022-08-21T23:51:01Z","timestamp":1661125861000},"page":"1335","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Testicular Immunity and Its Connection with the Microbiota. Physiological and Clinical Implications in the Light of Personalized Medicine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5671-8124","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Santacroce","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ciro","family":"Imbimbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Reproductive Sciences and Dentistry, School of Medicine, University of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8758-1415","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Ballini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4315-7660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felice","family":"Crocetto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Reproductive Sciences and Dentistry, School of Medicine, University of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2717-2489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Scacco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9521-2521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Cantore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Sorriso & Benessere\u2014Ricerca e Clinica, 70129 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7621-488X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika","family":"Di Zazzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Health Sciences \u201cV. Tiberio\u201d, University of Molise, 86100 Campobasso, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marica","family":"Colella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emilio","family":"Jirillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agarwal, A., Barb\u0103ro\u0219ie, C., Ambar, R., and Finelli, R. (2020). The Impact of Single- and Double-Strand DNA Breaks in Human Spermatozoa on Assisted Reproduction. Int. J. Mol. 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