{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T04:21:56Z","timestamp":1770351716552,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]],"date-time":"2022-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663113600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Xiamen University Malaysia","award":["XMUMRF\/2021-C8\/IECE\/0021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XMUMRF\/2021-C8\/IECE\/0021"]}]},{"name":"Xiamen University Malaysia","award":["DIP-2020-004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DIP-2020-004"]}]},{"name":"Xiamen University Malaysia","award":["GUP-2021-019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GUP-2021-019"]}]},{"name":"Xiamen University Malaysia","award":["UKM-TR-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UKM-TR-011"]}]},{"name":"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia","award":["XMUMRF\/2021-C8\/IECE\/0021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XMUMRF\/2021-C8\/IECE\/0021"]}]},{"name":"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia","award":["DIP-2020-004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DIP-2020-004"]}]},{"name":"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia","award":["GUP-2021-019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GUP-2021-019"]}]},{"name":"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia","award":["UKM-TR-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UKM-TR-011"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) patients are a significant threat to chronic kidney disease (CKD) development during their life. However, there is always a high chance of delay in CKD detection because CKD can be asymptomatic, and T1DM patients bypass traditional CKD tests during their routine checkups. This study aims to develop and validate a prediction model and nomogram of CKD in T1DM patients using readily available routine checkup data for early CKD detection. This research utilized 1375 T1DM patients\u2019 sixteen years of longitudinal data from multi-center Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) clinical trials conducted at 28 sites in the USA and Canada and considered 17 routinely available features. Three feature ranking algorithms, extreme gradient boosting (XGB), random forest (RF), and extremely randomized trees classifier (ERT), were applied to create three feature ranking lists, and logistic regression analyses were performed to develop CKD prediction models using these ranked feature lists to identify the best performing top-ranked features combination. Finally, the most significant features were selected to develop a multivariate logistic regression-based CKD prediction model for T1DM patients. This model was evaluated using sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, and F1 score on train and test data. A nomogram of the final model was further generated for easy application in clinical practices. Hypertension, duration of diabetes, drinking habit, triglycerides, ACE inhibitors, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, age, and smoking habit were the top-8 features ranked by the XGB model and identified as the most important features for predicting CKD in T1DM patients. These eight features were selected to develop the final prediction model using multivariate logistic regression, which showed 90.04% and 88.59% accuracy in internal and test data validation. The proposed model showed excellent performance and can be used for CKD identification in T1DM patients during routine checkups.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12091507","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]],"date-time":"2022-09-14T23:16:36Z","timestamp":1663197396000},"page":"1507","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Nomogram-Based Chronic Kidney Disease Prediction Model for Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients Using Routine Pathological Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1223-8556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nakib Hayat","family":"Chowdhury","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology, Saidpur Cantonment, Saidpur 5310, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0459-0365","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mamun Bin Ibne","family":"Reaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4819-863X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sawal Hamid Md","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shamim","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5483-3388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Liz","family":"Crespo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), 34151 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3645-9791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"Cicuttin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), 34151 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fahmida","family":"Haque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9060-0346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad Ashrif A.","family":"Bakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0772-0556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Arif Sobhan","family":"Bhuiyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Bandar Sunsuria, Sepang 43900, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2021, October 23). 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